tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-45303152058768420722024-03-14T08:26:28.855+08:00Andean TragedyFighting the War of the Pacific, 1879–1884Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.comBlogger56125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-36756299123818832212016-01-01T00:38:00.000+08:002015-03-26T21:46:33.655+08:00War of the Pacific (1879–1884)<div style="text-align: center;">
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<i>Ignacio Carrera Pinto and other Chilean soldiers in Concepción</i></div>
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PRINCIPAL COMBATANTS: Chile vs. Bolivia and Peru<br />
PRINCIPAL THEATER(S): Atacama Desert region and adjacent sea<br />
DECLARATION: Chile against Bolivia and Peru, April 5, 1879<br />
MAJOR ISSUES AND OBJECTIVES: Control of this nitrate-rich region<br />
OUTCOME: Chile triumphed, winning important portions of the Atacama region from the Peruvian-Bolivian alliance.<br />
APPROXIMATE
MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MEN UNDER ARMS: Chile fielded as many as 25,000
troops and had a reserve of 50,000; Peru, 9,680 plus 30,000 reserves;
Bolivia, 7,959<br />
CASUALTIES: Chile, 3,276 killed, 5,610 wounded; Peru, 9,672 killed, 14,431 wounded; Bolivia, 920 killed, 1,210 wounded<br />
TREATIES: Treaty of Ancón (Chile and Peru), October 20, 1883; Treaty of Valparaiso (Chile and Bolivia), April 4, 1884<br />
<br />
The
War of the Pacific ranks with the PARAGUAYAN WAR as one of the two
greatest international conflicts in 19th-century South American history.
Here Chile waged war against Peru and Bolivia for control of the guano
and nitrate deposits (vital in the manufacture of fertilizer,
explosives, and economically important chemicals) found in the Atacama
Desert. Although Chile claimed Tacna, Arica, and Tarapacá, and Bolivia
Antofagasta, the boundary between the two was uncertain, despite the
fact that they had settled on the 24th parallel as the dividing line in
1866. Chilean-financed mining concerns took advantage of the
instability. They swarmed into the region, threatening both Peruvian and
Bolivian holdings. In response, these two nations signed a secret
accord in 1873, pledging to assist one another in defense of their
Atacama territory. In 1875, Peru seized the property of Chilean mining
companies. Three years later, Bolivia made seizures of its own in 1878.
Chile responded in turn. Its president, Aníbal Pinto (1825–84),
dispatched 200 troops to take and occupy the port of Antofagasta in
February 1879, and on April 5, 1879, Chile declared war on Bolivia and
Peru.<br />
<br />
The war began at sea, when Chilean warships
blockaded Peruvian and Bolivian ports. Peru dispatched its ironclad
Huáscar to attack the blockading vessels, which it did with considerable
success until it was sunk in the Battle of Antofagasta on October 8,
1879. Not only did Peru lose one of its two ironclads, but one of its
important naval officers, Admiral Miguel Grau (1838–79), perished along
with most of his crew.<br />
<br />
After the sinking of the
Huáscar, the action shifted to land. The Peruvian and Bolivian armies
were ill-trained and poorly armed, possessing none of the modern weapons
to match those boasted by Chile’s well-drilled infantry armed with Gras
rifles, its veteran Winchestertoting cavalry, or its formidable
artillery, equipped with Krupp and Armstrong field guns and a smattering
of Gatlings and Nordenfelts. Thus it was a confident Chilean army that
staged a counteroffensive against the combined forces of Peru and
Bolivia in the Tarapacá region during the closing months of 1879.
Chilean forces took and occupied both Antofagasta and Tarapacá, then
invaded Arica and Tacna. These towns would fall to Chile by June 1880.<br />
<br />
Bolivia
reeled in defeat, but Peru stayed in the fight, determined to regain
Tarapacá. However, while this fighting continued, peace negotiations
were opened. Chilean leaders took advantage of the ongoing negotiations
to increase the pressure on Peru by invading that country, at Pisco,
with some 25,000 troops. Outnumbered, the Peruvian defenders fell back,
and the Chilean army marched north. At the village of Concepción on June
9–10, 1883, a company of 77 Chileans went down bravely fighting some
1,800 Peruvians in a battle that came to represent for Chile what the
Alamo represented for Texans or Thermopylae for the Greeks. More
determined than ever, the Chilean soldiers redoubled their efforts, the
Peruvian resistance collapsed, and the government itself tottered. On
December 17, 1879, Peru’s capital, Lima, fell. It proved a decapitating
blow. A cease-fire was declared, and, on October 20, 1883, Peru and
Chile concluded the Treaty of Ancón, by which Peru ceded Tarapacá to
Chile. Peru was to retain Tacna and Arica for a period of 10 years,
after which possession would be decided by plebiscite. On April 4, 1884,
Chile and Bolivia concluded the Treaty of Valparaiso, by which Bolivia
ceded to Chile the city and the province of Antofagasta. Diplomatic
wrangling delayed formal implementation of these terms for many years,
until 1904.<br />
<br />
<b>Further reading:</b> Robert N. Burr, By
Reason or Force: Chile and the Balancing of Power in South America,
1830–1905 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965); Bruce W.
Farcau, The Ten Cents War: Chile, Peru, and Bolivia in the War of the
Pacific, 1879–1884 (New York: Praeger, 2000).Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-87225497087026052752015-03-26T21:45:00.003+08:002015-03-26T21:45:28.717+08:00Chincha Islands War<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<i><b>The Chincha islands of Peru, being occupied by Spanish sailors on April 14, 1864.</b></i><br />
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The <b>Chincha Islands War</b> (Spanish: <span lang="es"><i>Guerra hispano-sudamericana</i></span>) was a series of coastal and naval battles between Spain and its former colonies of Peru and Chile from 1864 to 1866. The conflict began with Spain's seizure of the guano-rich Chincha Islands in one of a series of attempts by Spain, under Isabella II, to reassert its influence over its former South American colonies. The war saw the use of ironclads, including the Spanish ship <i>Numancia</i>, the first ironclad to circumnavigate the world.<br />
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<br />Under the rule of Isabel the II (1843-1868) Spain faced one of the most interesting and turbulent years of its history. When the young Queen was crowned, she found a weak country that was far beyond from being the great power of the past. She also found that the formerly powerful Spanish Armada had only three main warships, all of them built during the XVIII century and a couple of frigates and steamers, which was a clear contrast with the 177 warships that the country had in 1790. <br /><br /><br /> Isabel tried to recover the military prestige that the Kingdom had until the battle of Trafalgar, in which the British wiped out its impressive armada. She encouraged the construction of a modern and powerful fleet, which in few years turned Spain into the world’s fourth naval power. Between 1859 and 1860, 170 million of pesetas, an enormous amount for those days, were allocated for the construction of new warships. The result was a mighty squadron composed of six iron-protected frigates, eleven first class frigates and twelve steam corvettes, plus dozens of transports and smaller warships. Few times in her history Spain had assembled such an important and respectable fleet. <br /><br /> <br /> Despite her internal problems, Spain became again a colonial power, and backed by her naval might, by the end of the 1850´s the kingdom was participating in several overseas interventions and internal conflicts. During the second Government of former Governor of Cuba, Leopoldo O´Donnell (1858-1863), Spain engaged in a war against Morocco (Tetuan), in a conflict in Indochina (Vietnam), in the French-lead invasion of Mexico and in the brief annexation of the Dominican Republic. <br /><br /><br /> Soon it was the turn of South America. <br /><br /><br /> At the end of 1862, the Spanish Queen approved the sending of a so-called “scientific expedition” to Latin American waters. The expedition was placed under command of Rear Admiral Luis Hernandez Pinzon –a direct descendant of the Pinzon brothers who accompanied Christopher Columbus in the discovery of the New World- and was escorted by three warships: The twin steam frigates Triunfo and Resolucion and the schooner Virgen de Covadonga. However, beside scientific research, one of the purposes of the trip was to support the claims of Spanish citizens living in the Americas. <br /><br /> <br /> On April 18, 1863, the Spanish fleet arrived at the Chilean port of Valparaiso. While in Chilean waters the officers and men were cordially received and the Spaniards responded in kind. But in July of that year, once in Peru, the problems started. At that time Spain did not have diplomatic relations with Peru neither had recognized its independence obtained in 1821. Despite this situation, the expedition was received with friendly demonstrations by the authorities. Unfortunately, on August 2, and for reasons still not clear, an incident occurred in the northern Hacienda of Talambo between Spanish Basques immigrants and Peruvian nationals. As a result, one Spaniard was killed and four others injured. <br /><br /> <br /> Informed about this, Pinzon, who was on his way to San Francisco, California, returned to Peru with his fleet. The Spanish commanding officer attempted to interfere in what many Peruvians thought was an internal affair and requested reparations for the incident. Later, the Government in Madrid also demanded the immediate solution of some pending issues, such as the payment of debts originated in the wars of independence. To negotiate these issues, a special emissary, Eusebio Salazar y Mazaredo, invested as a Royal Commissioner, was sent to deal with the Peruvian Government. Peru resented the title of Mazaredo, since a Commissioner was supposed to be a colonial officer and not an Ambassador, which was the proper title for a diplomatic envoy to a free and Sovereign State. Mazaredo, who arrived in Peru on March 1864, tried unsuccessfully to reach an agreement with the Peruvian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Juan A. Ribeyro. <br /> <br /><br /> In response, on April 14th, 1864, the Spanish squadron moved from Callao towards the islands of Chincha, the major source of Peruvian guano fertilizer. The small Peruvian garrison was forced to surrender and at 16:00 hours, a detachment of 400 Spanish marines seized the islands, raised their flag and placed Governor Ramon Valle Riestra under arrest aboard the Resolucion. To have an idea about the importance of those islands to Peru, it must be said that nearly 60% of the Government expenditures came from the custom duties from guano. Spain wanted to use the rich islands as a bargaining tool for their demands, and even an ambitious Spanish Minister back in Madrid proposed to swap them with the British for Gibraltar. <br /><br /><br /> The Spaniards also blockaded Peru’s major port and placed the country into turmoil and anger. Even if during a first stage the Spanish Government of the new Prime Minister Jose Maria Narvaez did not approve the unilateral action taken by Pinzon and Salazar, over the next months he changed his mind and sent four more warships to reinforce the squadron. Narvaez also replaced Pinzon with the more capable Rear Admiral Juan Manuel Pareja, a former Minister of the Navy who, coincidentally, was born in Peru. His father, an army officer, was killed during the wars of independence, and Pareja disliked the “rebels” for that. <br /><br /><br /> Admiral Pareja arrived on Peru on December 1864 and engaged in intense diplomatic negotiations with retired General Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco, the special representative of the Peruvian President. The negotiations concluded on January 27, 1865, with a preliminary agreement signed aboard the Spanish frigate Villa de Madrid. However, most of the population rejected the Vivanco-Pareja Treaty because it was very humiliating for Peru. Congress did not ratify it and a revolution against the Pezet Government exploded in the city of Arequipa months later. <br /><br /> <br /> Meanwhile, anti-Spanish sentiments in several South American countries such as Bolivia, Chile and Ecuador were increasing. It was obvious that the Spaniards had no intention to conquer again their former colonies. Neither they had the strength, nor the resources to do it, but it was possible that the Government of Madrid, while presenting a crusade of honor in the Pacific was trying to distract attention from domestic problems. It was understandable that after what had happen in Mexico and Santo Domingo, Peru and its neighbors were suspicious about the possibility of the re-establishment of the Spanish Empire. For this reason it was not surprising that when the Spanish gunboat Vencedora stopped at a Chilean port for coal, the President of that country declared that coal was a war supply that could not be sold to a belligerent nation. However, from the Spanish point of view such embargo could not be taken as proof of Chilean neutrality since two Peruvian steamers –one of them the Lerzundi- had left the port of Valparaiso with weapons and Chilean volunteers to fight for Peru. In consequence, Admiral Pareja took a hard line and demanded sanctions against Chile, even heavier than those imposed upon Peru. He then headed with part of his squadron composed of four wooden ships to Chile, while the Covadonga and the Numancia remained to guard Callao. <br /><br /><br /> On September 17th, 1865, Admiral Pareja anchored his flagship, the Villa de Madrid, at Valparaiso and demanded that his flag be saluted with 21 guns. Under the circumstances the proud Chileans refused to salute Pareja's Insignia and war was declared one week later. Leopoldo O´Donnell, who was again Spain’s Prime Minister, backed Pareja. Since the Spanish Admiral had no troops with which to attempt a landing he decided to impose a blockade of the main Chilean ports. Even so, his plan was ridiculous, for in order to blockade Chile's 1,800 miles of coastline, Pareja would have needed a fleet several times larger than what he had at his disposal. The blockade of the port of Valparaiso, however, caused great damage to Chileans and neutrals. <br /><br /><br /> On November 8th, 1865, Peruvian President Juan Antonio Pezet was forced to resign from office and was replaced by his Vice President, General Pedro Diez Canseco. However, Diez Canseco also tried to avoid a collision with Spain, and on November 26th General Mariano I. Prado, leader of the nationalist movement, deposed him. Prado immediately declared his solidarity with Chile and a state of war with Her Catholic Majesty’s Government in order to restitute the nation’s honor and confront Pareja´s insults and humiliations. <br /><br /><br /> Ironically, that same day Admiral Pareja committed suicide. During the last weeks he had been suffering a series of setbacks. He could make no positive advances in his war with Chile, his blockade deteriorated and was ineffective and the crews of the ships were demoralized. The proud Admiral was unaware that the Chileans, in a brilliant naval action, had captured the gunboat Virgen de Covadonga and that during the fight the Spaniards had 4 men dead and 21 wounded (1). When on November 25 the American Consul casually mentioned it to him, the Admiral suffered a nervous collapse. It was too much for him. The Covadonga was the second warship lost by Spain in enemy waters after a fire destroyed the Triunfo a year ago. The next day Pareja dressed in his best uniform, laid down on his bed, and shot himself in the head.<br />
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<br /><br /> Back in the Peninsula, the Spanish public opinion was enraged and demanded revenge. Because of the loss of the Virgen de Covadonga, one newspaper wrote: <br /><br /><br /> “Let our squadron perish in the Pacific if necessary, only let our honor to be saved” <br /><br /> After Pareja´s death, the command of the Spanish squadron went to the Captain of the Numancia, Commodore Casto Mendez Nuñez. <br /> <br /><br /> On December the 5th 1865, Chile and Peru formally signed an alliance to fight against Spain. The treaty was ratified on January 12, 1866. Two days later Peru declared war on Spain. Immediately a squadron of the Peruvian navy under command of Captain Lizardo Montero, composed by the steam frigates Amazonas and the Apurimac, sailed towards Valparaiso to join the Chilean fleet. Once there the allied command was placed under orders of Chilean Admiral Manuel Blanco Encalada, an old but capable officer. <br /><br /><br /> Rumors spread trough Europe and panic reached Spanish waters because two new powerful Peruvian ironclads had sailed from England and were said to be heading towards the port of Cadiz. The Spaniards were also afraid of hostilities against their merchant ships sailing in international waters. To prevent such actions Madrid dispatched to the Atlantic the frigate Gerona, which in time, near Madeira, would capture a 2000-ton disarmed Chilean cruiser of the “Super-Alabama” class built in England, and dispatched in secrecy under the code name “Canton”. The Spaniards will rename her “Tornado” (2). On the other hand, Peruvian warships will seize three Spanish transports off the coasts of Brazil while on their way to Chile. The Chilean Government on its part sent the steamer Maipu to the Straight of Magellan to intercept the Spanish transports "Odessa" and "Vascongada". <br /><br /><br /> THE SQUADRONS <br /><br /> Most people in Spain thought that Peru and Chile were not worthy to fight against their glorious armada. Such a perception was based upon prejudices because both countries, as former colonies, were seen as inferior. Another reason was the lack of knowledge of the South American reality as well as the presumption by most Western powers of a moral and material superiority over other countries or territories of their time. For many Spaniards as most Europeans, there was no difference between Peru and Morocco or between Chile and the Dominican Republic and so they thought they could be easily defeated. That was a big mistake that would carry fatal consequences, as the lost of the Covadonga and the suicide of the gallant admiral Pareja. Their difficulties however, were just starting. <br /><br /> <br /><br /> The order of battle of the Spanish and the allied fleets from the arrival of the scientific expedition to Callao in July 1863 to the naval encounters of February and May 1866 will go trough many changes because both navies were reinforced with new units. <br /><br /> The Spaniards had managed to assemble in South American waters a formidable squadron. It was composed of the following warships: <br /><br /> <br /><br /> <b>Iron-protected frigates </b><br /><br /> Numancia, at that time among the most powerful ships of the world (Built in France, 1863; Weight 7,500-tons; Speed 12 knots; weapons thirty-four 200-mm guns; Armor five and a half iron belt; Crew 620 men). <br /><br /> <br /><br /> <b>Steam frigates </b><br /><br /> Villa de Madrid, (Built 1862; Weight 4,478-tons; Speed 15 knots; Weapons thirty 200-mm guns, fourteen 160 mm-guns, two 120-mm guns, plus two 150-mm howitzers and two 80-mm guns for disembarks). <br /><br /> Resolucion, (Built 1861; Weight 3,100-tons; Speed 11 knots; weapons twenty 200-mm guns, fourteen 160-mm guns, one revolving 220-mm gun and two 150 mm-howitzers, two 120-mm guns and two 80-mm guns for disembarks). <br /><br /> Almansa, (Built 1864; Weight 3,980-tons; Speed 12 knots; armament thirty 200-mm guns; fourteen 160-mm guns and two 120-mm guns. She also had two 150 mm-howitzers and two 80-mm guns for disembarks). This ship would arrive to the Pacific on April 1866, days before the Dos de Mayo Combat. <br /><br /> Reina Blanca and Berenguela, (Each weighted about 3,800-tons. The first one had 68 guns while the Berenguela had 36 guns). <br /><br /><br /> <b>Schooners </b><br /><br /> Virgen de Covadonga, (Built 1864; Weight 445-tons; Speed 8 knots; Weapons two revolving 200-mm guns at the sides and one revolving 160-mm guns at the prow). Spain however will lose the ship to the Chileans. <br /><br /><br /> <b>Gunboats </b><br /><br /> Vencedora, (Built 1861; Weight 778-tons; Speed 8 knots; weapons two 200-mm revolving guns and two 160-mm guns). <br /><br /> The squadron was reinforced with other small gunboats and transports, among them the Marques de la Victoria (armed with 3 guns), Maule, Consuelo and Mataure. It had combined artillery of 250 guns (3). <br /><br /> <br /> Among the two South American allies, Peru had the biggest fleet. Obviously it could not match the total tonnage and firepower of the Spanish squadron but neither it was, as some had thought, a third class flotilla that could be wiped out with a single of Mendez Nuñez ships. On the contrary, Peru had the most respectable naval squadron on the Western shores of the continent, managed by competent and professional sailors. <br /><br /> As Spain did in the 1850´s, Peru had renewed its navy trough the purchase of last generation warships in the best European shipyards, mainly British. When the crisis with Spain deepened, the Peruvian Government decided to increase its fleet in the event of war, and bought two former Confederate cruisers built in France and ordered the construction of two seagoing ironclads in England. It also decided to build ironclad of its own. By 1866 Peru had the following warships:<br /><br /> <br /><br /> <b>Frigates </b><br /><br /> Apurimac, (Built UK, 1854; Weight 1,666-tons; Weapons forty four guns). <br /><br /> Amazonas, (Built UK, 1852; Weight 1,320-tons; Weapons twenty-six 32-pounders and six 64-pounders). <br /><br /> Richmond-Class casemated ram monitors: <br /><br /> Loa (Built, UK, 1854; redesigned and finished in Peru in 1865; Weight 648 tons; Weapons one 110-pounder and one 32-pounder. Protection iron armor 3-inch thick). <br /><br /> Victoria (Built Peru 1864; Weight 300 tons; Weapons one smoothbore 64-pounder. Protection iron armor 3-inch thick). <br /><br /> <br /><br /> <b>Cruisers </b><br /> Union (Built France, 1864; Weight 1,600 tons; Speed 12.5 knots; Weapons two 100-pounder guns, two 68 pounders and 12 forty pounders) <br /><br /> America (Built France, 1864; Weight 1,600 tons; Speed 12.5 knots; Weapons two 100-pounder guns, two 68 pounders and 12 forty pounders) <br /><br /> <br /><br /> <b>Ironclads </b><br /><br /> Independence, casemate, central battery, ironclad steam frigate (Built UK 1865; Weight 2004-tons; Speed 12.5 knots; Weapons two 150 pounders, twelve 70 pounders, four 32 pounders and four 9 pounders. Protection 4-inch armor; Crew 260 men). <br /><br /> <br /><br /> Huascar (Built UK 1865; Weight 1,130-tons; Engine 1,500 horse power; Speed 11.5 knots; Weapons, Two 300-pound Armstrong’s, two 40-pound pivots Armstrong at the sides and one 12-pounder at the stern. Protection 4.5 armor in the iron helmet amidships, 2.5 inches at the ends and 5.5-inches in the revolving turret. Crew 200 men). <br /><br /> <br /> Huascar was by all means an extraordinary warship. In theory, her 10-inch guns were capable of destroying any of the wooden Spanish frigates, whose most powerful guns were 68-pounders, number 2, incapable of piercing the armor or the Huascar or the Independence <br /><br /> Peru also had several other warships, including the Tumbes (carrying two rifled 70-pounders), Ucayali (two 32-pound guns, three 24-pounders and one 18-pounder), the Sachaca (armed with six-smoothbore 12-pounders) and the 850-ton General Lerzundi (six guns). <br /><br /> <br /><br /> On September 1864 Peru also bought a brand new steamer in the United States, the Colon, armed with two-smoothbore 12-pounders. However, American General Irvin McDowell seized and held the Colon in San Francisco. The seizure of this ship was later approved by the U.S. Secretary of War and his additional orders provided that all war material was required for the use of the United States government, and nothing of the kind could be purchased or taken from the United States, especially on the Pacific coast. The Peruvian government protested against the seizure of the Colon and demanded that the vessel be released. The American government was slow to act and the order to release the Colon was not issued until March 14, 1865, more than six months after the seizure. In the meantime the case had been the subject of an investigation by a grand jury and an opinion rendered that there was no cause for the detention of the Colon. Nevertheless the ship was commissioned in the Peruvian Navy and arrived in time to fight against the Spaniards. <br /><br /> <br /><br /> At the beginning of the conflict, the Chileans only had the Esmeralda, a 854 ton British-built corvette commissioned in 1854 and armed with 18 guns, and the Maipu, a 450 ton steamer built in the United Kingdom in 1855 armed with four 32 and one 68-pounder guns. Chile also was about to receive two Alabama class unarmored cruisers from the British, the Chacabuco and the O´Higgins, originally built for the navy of the “Confederate States of America”. Unfortunately for the allies those ships could not join the struggle because London seized them until the end of the war. The Chilean fleet however was increased with the 412-ton Spanish iron protected schooner Virgen de Covadonga and the 850-ton steamer General Lerzundi. The first one captured from the Spaniards and the second one bought from Peru in early 1866 and renamed as Lautaro. <br /><br /> . . . . <br /><br /> (1) The Tornado was apparently launched at Clydebank in 1863. The vessel had a protective 4" armor belt surrounding her engines and boilers. She was armed with one 220mm (7.8") muzzleloading Parrott guns, two 160/15 cal. muzzleloading guns, two 120-mm bronze muzzleloading guns, and two 87- mm/24 cal. Hontoria breechloading guns. She had a crew complement of 202 men. The Tornado has been built a commerce-raider for the North American Confederation. Seized by the British Government in 1863, and acquired in 1865, she was purchased by Chile for 75,000 Pounds through Isaac Campbell & Co.in January or February of 1866. According to some sources the vessel was renamed Pampero. Was captured off Madeira by the Spanish frigate Gerona on August 22, 1866 and renamed Tornado. Commissioned in the Spanish Navy, she was rated as screw corvette in 1870. She was converted to a torpedo-training vessel in 1886. Her hulk was sunk in Barcelona by Nationalist air raid during Spanish Civil War. She was finally broken up after 1939. <br /><br /> <br /><br /> (2) St. Hubert Ch. “The Early Spanish Steam Warships 1834-1870” Warship International 1983. - # 4. - P.338-367; 1984. - #1. - P. 21-44. <br /><br /> <br /><br /> (3) This episode was known as the Battle of Papudo and was fought 55 miles north of Valparaiso. The Chileans, following a threat used by Admiral Lord Thomas Cochrane 45 years before, hoisted a British flag on the Esmeralda, and when they were close enough to Covadonga, they raised their own flag and unmercifully bombarded the Spanish ship until her surrender. Beside the casualties, seven Spanish officers and 115 sailors were taken prisoners. <br />Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-46647415372938553732012-02-12T00:36:00.003+08:002014-05-01T11:13:08.447+08:00The Nitrate King: A Biography of "Colonel" John Thomas North (Studies of the Americas)<div style="text-align: center;">
<img _cke_saved_src="http://zq9jgqj.dhpreview.devhub.com/img/upload/hgfhgfhmg.jpg" alt="" src="http://zq9jgqj.dhpreview.devhub.com/img/upload/hgfhgfhmg.jpg" style="height: 747px; width: 500px;" /></div>
The
first book-length biography of John Thomas North (1842-1896), known as
'Colonel North' in Britain and throughout the world as 'The Nitrate
King,' this book utilizes sources in Britain and Chile and traces
North's spectacular life from a mechanic in Leeds through his thirteen
years in Peru and Chile culminating in his status as one of the richest
and best-known men of his generation. North is today almost completely
forgotten in Britain and remembered in Chile only to be vilified as the
archetypal predatory capitalist. This book calls for a revaluation of
North and examines several controversies—principally the enduring
allegations that North manipulated the War of the Pacific and the
Chilean Civil War of 1891. The book describes North's business
activities; his re-invention as country gentleman at Avery Hill mansion;
and his generosity, including the gift of Kirkstall Abbey to the city
of Leeds.<br />
<br />
<h3 class="productDescriptionSource">
Review</h3>
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"Well-written
. . . and contributes new information about North’s life and the
relation of that life to the economic development of Chile."--Michael
Monteón, Professor of History, University of California, San Diego</div>
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<div>
"A
revealing, entertaining, and long-needed biography of one of the
nineteenth-century’s most flamboyant and controversial international
capitalists--'Colonel' John Thomas North. Edmundson adeptly exploits
previously unknown archival materials, the contemporary press, and a
vast academic literature on the nitrate industry and Chilean politics to
bring the 'Colonel' back to life in all his complexity."--Brian
Loveman, Professor of Political Science, Emeritus, San Diego State
University and author of <i>Chile: The Legacy of Hispanic Capitalism</i> and <i>No Higher Law: American Foreign Policy and the Western Hemisphere since 1776</i></div>
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<div>
"The
author's research, conscientiously carried out in English archives, and
the collaboration of experts in information and of libraries, not only
proves the seriousness of Edmundson’s work, but also the tireless idea
of unraveling the life and actions of North in Chile and in other
countries where he made investments." ‘El regresso de John Thomas
North,’ <i>Diario 21</i>, Iquique, Chile. May 2, 2011 (trans.), Dr.
Pedro Bravo-Elizondo (Ret.), Professor of Latin American Literature,
Wichita State University.</div>
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<h3 class="productDescriptionSource">
From the Author</h3>
<span>This
is the first book-length biography of John Thomas North (1842-1896),
known as 'Colonel North' in Britain and throughout the world as 'The
Nitrate King'. I have used sources in Britain and Chile to trace North's
spectacular life from mechanic in Leeds, through thirteen years in Peru
and Chile, to become one of the richest and best-known men of his
generation, and the first Honorary Freeman of Leeds. While writing my
previous book - <i>A history of the British presence in Chile</i> - I
was struck by the fact that North is today almost completely forgotten
in Britain, and remembered in Chile only to be vilified as the
archetypal predatory capitalist. My book calls for a revaluation, and
examines several controversies--principally the enduring allegations
that North helped manipulate the War of the Pacific, and was active in
triggering the Chilean Civil War of 1891. The book describes North's
business investments; his re-invention as country gentleman at Avery
Hill mansion; and his generosity, including the gift of Kirkstall Abbey
to the city of Leeds. </span><br />
<h3>
Biography</h3>
STOP-PRESS: 'The
Nitrate King' has been nominated by Palgrave-Macmillan for the PROSE
Award 2011 - The American Publishers Awards for Professional and
Scholarly Excellence.<br /><br /> William (Eddie) Edmundson works as a
consultant in Recife, Brazil, following a career in teacher training and
management with the British Council that has taken him to Colombia,
Mexico, Brazil, Chile, and his most recent appointment as Director Cuba.
He has a B.A. (Hons.) in English literature from Leeds University, a
postgraduate certificate in education (Bangor University), and a masters
in linguistics (Reading University). His first book focusses on Chile:
'A history of the British presence in Chile' (Nov. 2009). His second
book is a biography of 'The Nitrate King' - John Thomas North - who was
born in Leeds and made his first fortune in Chile. This book is
available from April 2011 in the US, and May 2011 in the UK.<br />
<br />
Born
in Leeds in 1842 Colonel North was an engineer who was sent to Chile in
1869 to deliver a consignment of British equipment. He spotted the
possibilities in the undeveloped Chilean / Peruvean nitrate fields and
by various means gained control of a significant proportion of them. He
also set up shipping resources to provide water for the industry and its
workers, and invested in a mineral railway. He took advantage of the
War of the Pacific in 1879, which led to Chile taking the
nitrate-bearing territory from Peru and Bolivia, to buy up ownership at
an advantageous rate, and, along with his co-investors, made a massive
fortune, and returned to England as a tycoon. He was a famous celebrity
in his day, although considered by some newspapers as a rogue who
fleeced his investors, and was heading for trouble when he died
unexpectedly at a relatively young age in 1896. He invested widely, in
Australia, the Congo, Belgium and South Wales, where his name still
adorns buildings in my home town. Several of his concerns continued into
the 20th century, although many of his investors lost money, as so many
did in 19th century get-rich-quick investment schemes, this was due to
the continuous fluctuations in nitrate demand. His non-nitrate
investments had a better track record. Many Chilean historians, and
several left-wing ones see him as a robber baron, who stripped Chile of
its wealth, but current reappraisals see it slightly differently, as he
invested in and modernised the nitrate industry. The chapters in this
book look at different aspects of his life and career. The contents are -<br />
<br /> P001: Introduction<br /> P007: We Had Adventures of All Sorts<br /> P015: I Was Better Acquainted Than Any Other Foreigner<br /> P025: Don Juan Thomas North<br /> P037: The Nitrate King<br /> P057: The Grand Promotion Army<br /> P075: Colonel North<br /> P097: The Sensation of the Hour<br /> P107: A Visit to the Nitrate Kingdom<br /> P129: A Millionaire Stripped Bare<br /><br />
This is a readable book, well-written, and although short, covers its
subject in sufficient detail - worth getting from the library, as I did,
if you are interested in Victorian entrepreneurs and engineering.<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">G. Simon</span><br />
<br />Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-79890873795360198242012-02-12T00:35:00.003+08:002014-05-01T11:13:08.507+08:00ROYAL NAVY AND THE PERUVIAN-CHILEAN WAR 1879 - 1881, THE: Rudolf de Lisle's Diaries and Watercolors<div style="text-align: center;">
<img _cke_saved_src="http://zq9jgqj.dhpreview.devhub.com/img/upload/51qnicipbl_ss500_.jpg" alt="" src="http://zq9jgqj.dhpreview.devhub.com/img/upload/51qnicipbl_ss500_.jpg" style="height: 500px; width: 500px;" /></div>
<h1>
<span>Gerard de Lisle</span></h1>
This
beautifully presented book captures the spirit of a little known war
where the Royal Navy played a peripheral but crucial role. The power of
the British Empire was at its height, thanks to the reach of the Royal
Navy and officers from that service who often found themselves far from
home and in positions of power way beyond their rank.<br />
<h1>
<a _cke_saved_href="http://www.amazon.com/ROYAL-NAVY-PERUVIAN-CHILEAN-WAR-1879/dp/1844156524/ref=sr_1_77?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1322060276&sr=1-77" href="http://www.amazon.com/ROYAL-NAVY-PERUVIAN-CHILEAN-WAR-1879/dp/1844156524/ref=sr_1_77?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1322060276&sr=1-77" target="_blank">LINK</a></h1>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-72948499513695404412011-03-22T00:29:00.002+08:002015-03-26T21:26:50.543+08:00WAR OF THE PACIFIC<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSVgTCHbDkt1OyBCGEiHpmpYxLMf6NPsG91FjsJkScWt8FRAAQ-BB5yMDShGkHAX-E2l6DP3Uyb2TmTbseJS-1ocvQUM5CbgvRZ_dzbCyPXBh7PDwVDRLJPks_dndCFf9OJLahx0K9MfCW/s1600-h/Gdp.ops.en.400.png" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSVgTCHbDkt1OyBCGEiHpmpYxLMf6NPsG91FjsJkScWt8FRAAQ-BB5yMDShGkHAX-E2l6DP3Uyb2TmTbseJS-1ocvQUM5CbgvRZ_dzbCyPXBh7PDwVDRLJPks_dndCFf9OJLahx0K9MfCW/s400/Gdp.ops.en.400.png" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5315664980916578210" style="cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 400px; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center; width: 231px;" /></a><br />
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From 1874 to 1879, the South American nation of Chile experienced a depression caused by falling copper and wheat prices, a dropping off of exports, and rising unemployment. The only bright spot in the economy was the expanding nitrate business, but its mining eventually caused war between Chile and its neighbors, Peru and Bolivia. Nitrates were mined in the Atacama Desert along the Chile-Bolivia border. Most of the work was done by Anglo-Chilean companies, which operated in the Bolivian province of Antofagasta and the Peruvian province of Tarapaca. An 1866 treaty between Bolivia and Chile set their border at the 24th parallel, with both countries able to mine nitrates between the 23rd and 25th parallels; tax revenue collected by either country along the frontier would be split with the other country. This taxation arrangement was altered in 1874 when Chile agreed to give up its share of Bolivian tax revenue in return for a promise that taxes on Chilean profits in Bolivia would not be raised for 25 years.<br />
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<o:p> </o:p></div>
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Though Chile had no border with Peru, aggressive Chilean miners pushed into the Peruvian desert to mine nitrates. By 1875, some 10,000 people were employed in mining and subsidiary operations in the Peruvian Tarapaca desert region. Peru had thus far said little about the Anglo-Chilean operations in its province, but in 1875 a faltering economy forced the Peruvian government to nationalize the nitrate companies. The Peruvian government paid for the companies with government bonds paying 8 percent, payable in two years. When the bonds came due, the Peruvians were unable to honor their financial commitments and the bonds’ value plummeted. The Anglo-Chilean companies were able to absorb the loss of the Peruvian assets, but 151 when the Bolivians decided in 1878 to raise taxes on the Chileans along the frontier in violation of the 1876 agreement, the loss of profits was too much to take. Chile refused to pay the higher taxes even when Bolivia threatened to nationalize the operations as the Peruvians had done. According to the 1876 agreement, an arbitrator should have been called in to handle the dispute, but Bolivia refused. The Bolivian government felt secure in its ability to back up its threats because of an 1874 secret mutual-defense treaty with Peru, but the Bolivians failed to consult the Peruvians in advance. In February 1879, Bolivia nationalized the mining companies, and Chilean troops went into action. On 14 February, they occupied the port of Antofagasta against no opposition; soon they were in control of the entire province. Not wanting to get involved in the fighting, Peru offered to mediate a peace settlement. Chile then learned of the secret treaty and, accusing the Peruvians of duplicity, declared war on them on 5 April 1879.<br />
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The combined Bolivian and Peruvian effort appeared daunting, especially since they had a combined population twice that of Chile, and Peru had a fairly good navy. However, Chile had a stronger and more stable central government, a more motivated population, a well-trained army, and a navy armed with two modern ironclads. Also, the main theater of operations was handier to Chile; the Bolivians had to cross the Andes, and the Peruvians had to cross the desert. All three countries were in economic trouble, but Chile was in the best financial shape and had the assistance of the British because the mining operations were mainly theirs. Both Bolivia and Peru had defaulted on British loans and angered the British by nationalizing the companies, so they had no qualms about supporting Chile.<br />
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<o:p> </o:p></div>
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The key battle of the war took place at sea on 8 October 1879, when the Chilean ironclads captured a Peruvian commerce raider, the Huascar, that had been hurting their trade and logistical operations. With control of the sea, Chile could supply its troops more efficiently, and the army was soon marching through Bolivian territory into Peru. Bolivia withdrew from the conflict in mid-1880 when Chilean troops occupied large parts of Peru. After a difficult battle, the Chileans captured the capital city of Lima in January 1881, effectively winning the war. Peruvians continued to fight a guerrilla war for two years, but on 20 October 1883 they gave up and signed the Treaty of Ancon. The treaty gave Chile the province of Tarapaca forever and two other provinces for 10 years, after which a referendum was to be held to determine their nationality. The referendum never took place, but in 1929 the two countries agreed to return the province of Tacna to Peru, while Chile kept the province of Arica.<br />
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The Bolivians signed an armistice with Chile in April 1884, in which they ceded the province of Antofagasta to Chile, but cession was not official until 1904, when a treaty was finally signed. That treaty obliged the Chileans to pay an indemnity and build a railroad from the Bolivian capital of La Paz to the coast of Arica. The railroad was completed in 1913.<br />
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With their army already mobilized, the Chilean government decided to use it to deal with the Araucanian Indians, a tribe that had been fighting for their land since colonial times. Hopelessly outnumbered and outsupplied, after two years the Indians were forced to sign a treaty in 1883 that placed them on reservations, though they were allowed to maintain tribal government and laws. Chile consolidated the rugged territory that had been the Araucanian homeland. With Peru bankrupt and Bolivia isolated, Chile became the strongest nation on South America’s west coast. Control of the area’s copper and nitrate meant an improving income, but close ties to Britain kept them from enjoying it totally. Chile decided to honor the Peruvian bonds issued when the Tarapaca mines were nationalized, and British speculators had been buying them up ever since Peru could not fulfill them. Thus, the British were able to control 70 percent of the nitrate production by 1890, as well as profit from their own construction of banks, railroads, and subsidiary businesses. Longstanding ties between Britain and the Chilean upper class made the British acquisition smoother, and some Chileans were able to profit from investments in British concerns.<br />
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<b>References:</b> Keen, Benjamin, and Mark Waserman, <i>A Short History of Latin America </i>(Boston: Houghton<i> </i>Mifflin, 1984); Loveman, Brian, <i>The Legacy of Hispanic Capitalism </i>(New York: Oxford<i> </i>University Press, 1979); Sater, William, <i>Chile and the War of the Pacific </i>(Lincoln: University of<i> </i>Nebraska Press, 1986).<i><o:p></o:p></i></div>
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-90226639722540349282010-06-14T20:49:00.000+08:002014-05-01T11:13:08.533+08:00The Ten Centavos War<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_td95Zp_r3eKYHiOPV5MbcZFySmjoLdBE0b_-wWprA08OdSpkYBZ3MhWn0oQhfrJYtxTLfo6gTuTMGl2oSBTKbqv8269m82NiB2Khacf_LmSZlOsUU4gmXXrJEnogsOpbO9-qd4pN3Mjh/s1600/bannertitulo.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="61" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_td95Zp_r3eKYHiOPV5MbcZFySmjoLdBE0b_-wWprA08OdSpkYBZ3MhWn0oQhfrJYtxTLfo6gTuTMGl2oSBTKbqv8269m82NiB2Khacf_LmSZlOsUU4gmXXrJEnogsOpbO9-qd4pN3Mjh/s400/bannertitulo.gif" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">The War of the Pacific was popularly dubbed the “Ten Centavos (cents) War.” In 1877, after a devastating tidal wave destroyed much of the port of Antofagasta, the municipal council there passed a reconstruction tax. In 1878, President Hilarión Daza and the Bolivian Congress approved the modest 10¢ tax on every 100 pounds of nitrates exported from Bolivian territory. This law directly violated the 1874 treaty, and the Chileans and foreign investors were outraged. The British and Chilean–owned Nitrates and Railroad Company of Antofagasta refused to pay the tax, and tensions mounted. <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">At first, cooler heads prevailed. President Daza temporarily suspended the tax, and the company agreed to an annual voluntary contribution. But then Daza ended the moratorium and demanded that the tax be paid retroactively. Once again, the foreign company refused to comply. The Chileans responded with gunboat diplomacy, and anchored an ironclad in Antofagasta harbor and mobilized their entire fleet. <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">This time, President Daza refused to back down. With Bolivian sovereignty seemingly besmirched, Daza canceled the mining contract of the British-Chilean consortium. On February 14, 1879, Chile occupied Antofagasta—home to 5,000 Chileans and fewer than 600 Bolivians— and issued an ultimatum: Bolivia had 48 hours to accede to international arbitration of the dispute. President Daza ignored the deadline and insisted that the port first be liberated. He also withheld news of the Chilean landing for a week until after the conclusion of the popular carnival festivities then under way. <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">In no mood for more wrangling, Chile occupied Bolivia’s Antofagasta province and the entire Pacific coast south of the 23rd parallel in March. On March 14, Bolivia announced a formal declaration of war, but war still might have been averted if Peru’s last-minute conciliatory diplomacy had succeeded, or if Peru had not honored its defensive alliance with Bolivia. By this time, however, word of the Bolivian declaration of war had reached Santiago, and therefore, on April 5, Chile formally declared war against Bolivia and Peru.<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>Defeat and Loss of the Seacoast <o:p></o:p></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Bolivia was totally unprepared for war, especially one so distant from its population centers and resource base, and suffered from grossly irresponsible leadership. Despite his patriotic bluster, President Daza was inept in the military campaign. On the battlefield, he proved cowardly, self-motivated, and (according to some accounts) often drunk. Daza withdrew his crack Bolivian regiments from the field and left the allied forces to be defeated by the Chileans in the Battle of San Francisco. Although the remaining allied forces were victorious days later in the indecisive Battle of Tarapacá, President Daza’s desertion became a great national embarrassment to Bolivia.<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Historians have argued that Daza wanted to protect his prized regiments as a hedge against coup attempts, but on December 27, 1879, in a clever and meticulously timed plot, officers at the front and Colonel Eliodoro Camacho, the chief of staff, overthrew Daza, and the expresident fled into exile in Europe. <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">In January 1880, General Narciso Campero, a distinguished career officer and division commander, was appointed Bolivia’s provisional president and assumed command of the allied forces in the field as by then both the Bolivian and the Peruvian presidents had effectively deserted command of their armies. Campero’s Bolivian-Peruvian force was decisively defeated by the Chileans in May, and Campero and his exhausted troops retreated toward La Paz. At the head of one column of survivors, Campero was met with the news that the National Assembly had formally elected him president on May 31. As the marauding horde of desperate soldiers approached the Bolivian border, a cavalry force from La Paz intercepted and forcibly disarmed them. The government feared violence when the wounded and exhausted returnees learned that they would not receive the back pay owed them. For Bolivia, the shooting war was over, although hostilities between Peru and Chile continued for three more years while Bolivia watched from the sidelines, hoping for a favorable resolution. <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">On April 5, 1884, Bolivia signed the Truce of Valparaiso, which gave Chile control, but not permanent transfer, of Bolivia’s coastal territory. A peace treaty was finally signed in 1904, whereby Chile formally annexed Bolivia’s Atacama province (called Antofagasta today). Bolivia was guaranteed the right to import and export its goods through the ports of Arica and Antofagasta and to set up customs stations. Duties on imports were to be divided, providing Bolivia 75 percent and Chile 25 percent. <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Thus, with the stroke of a pen, Bolivia lost a fourth of its territory and became the landlocked nation that it is today. The War of the Pacific was officially over, but not Bolivia’s relentless quest to regain a seacoast.<o:p></o:p></div>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-89262512052395055972010-06-14T20:47:00.003+08:002014-05-01T11:13:08.530+08:00Bolivia - On the Eve of the Great Pacific War<div class="MsoNormal"><i>No war breaks out over guano, of which little remains. It is saltpeter that throws the Chilean army into the conquest of the deserts, against the allied forces of Peru and Bolivia.</i> Eduardo Galeano (1987, 218)<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"> The War of the Pacific was a war over resources, although territorial rivalry was its most immediate cause. The conflict also involved geopolitics, economic rivalry, greed, corruption, and personal ambitions. Indeed, the basic ingredient of the war—rivalry for power and economic dominance—first came into play with Bolivian independence. Because of this endemic regional rivalry, some historians have argued that the War of the Pacific was inevitable.<o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">In the 1870s, the conflict of national interests and increasing disparities in economic and political power among the three neighboring South American countries of Bolivia, Chile, and Peru reached a critical climax. The new power distribution greatly favored Chile, and Chilean statesmen seized this opportunity to consolidate and further expand their nation’s influence and control along the Pacific coast. <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Since its founding as a sovereign nation, Bolivia’s survival had been tentative. At first, Lima and Buenos Aires considered Bolivia’s very existence suspect. Bolivia, after all, had been capriciously carved out of the colonial audiencias that they had jealously controlled. Once established, Bolivia was troublesome and unstable. The new country seemed unable to rule itself, much less populate and effectively administer its vast and dispersed territory. Bolivia’s rich natural resources were the constant envy of its more powerful and aggressive neighbors in the Southern Cone. Debilitated by corruption and instability, Bolivia dismally failed to preserve its territory and resources when challenged by Chile. <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">In great part Bolivia’s geopolitics and unique national conditions facilitated this disastrous war and the loss of its Pacific seacoast. As late as the 1880s, the altiplano region remained the geopolitical center of the shaky new republic. The majority of the country’s territory, however, was neglected and isolated from the highland by formidable natural barriers—impassable and hostile mountain ranges, rivers, deserts, and jungles. Bolivians in these frontier regions were forced to fend for themselves. Moreover, Bolivia’s population was largely indigenous with only a thin upper crust of Spaniards and other Europeans. Neither social group had the necessary mobility or motivation to migrate to the less hospitable parts of the country. <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">These factors had a devastating impact on settlement of Bolivia’s Atacama province. Even after the discovery of guano and nitrate deposits in the Atacama Desert, which stretched from Peru in the north to Chile in the south, the Bolivian government was unable to incorporate and fortify this distant, sparsely populated coastal province. The unexpected bonanza in natural fertilizers brought a sudden influx of new settlers, prospectors, and entrepreneurs to the region; however, this population increase only compounded Bolivia’s problems since Bolivian citizens were now outnumbered 10 to one by Chileans and other immigrants, including thousands of Chinese coolies brought here by Peru and Chile as cheap, captive laborers. <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">With other nations and foreign firms competing for the profits from the bird droppings and saltpeter, Bolivia’s share of the bonanza steadily shrank. The remainder was squandered by the corrupt caudillos on profligate living and ill-advised foreign concessions and loans. Bolivian entrepreneurs’ resources were depleted or invested elsewhere, primarily in the highland silver mines. As a last resort, with the economy stagnant and the country heavily indebted, Bolivian governments permitted and encouraged British and Chilean capital to exploit the desert windfall on their behalf. In short, Bolivia’s inherent political and economic weaknesses directly contributed to the outbreak of the war. <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Chile, on the other hand, stood in a position of relative strength. Unlike Peru or Bolivia, Chile’s exceptional political stability and economic growth since 1830 had helped make it the dominant power in the region. Chileans held regular elections for civilian governments and enticed foreign investors by the credibility of their sound political and financial systems. Chile’s cities were modern, and its people were mostly European immigrants, rather than Indians. Its economy was more diversified, and its territory was more integrated and cohesive. Chile had what both Peru and Bolivia lacked. Indeed, one Chilean president boasted in 1858 that the country had “the honor to have proved to the world that the Spanish American people can govern themselves by their own unaided efforts and can continue to prosper” (Bader 1967, 25). <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">This is not to say that all was well in Chile at the time. The country had its share of shortcomings and crises, and it was precisely a national crisis—the depression of 1878—that pushed Chile closer to war. By the mid-1870s, Chilean progress had come to a halt. Chilean exports had declined and the foreign debt had skyrocketed at the same time that droughts and diseases ravaged the country. Upward of 50,000 Chileans—mostly rotos, or landless peasant farmers of European descent—were forced to emigrate. Many would slave in the grueling guano and nitrate operations in Bolivia’s Atacama Desert. <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Chile’s economic decline was an incentive to resolve the territorial dispute with Bolivia aggressively. Chile saw in the great riches of the coastal desert an immediate solution to the 1878 financial crisis and reliable long-term financing for the national debt and future commercial and territorial expansion. Decades later, Chile’s foreign minister, Abraham Köning, dissected Chilean motivations succinctly: “The area is rich and worth many millions” (Siles Guevara 1960, 68). Indeed, in the 20 years from 1880 to the end of the century, the gross value of the nitrate exports from the conquered regions reached nearly 3 billion pesos. On the eve of the war, corruption in Peru and Bolivia and the economic crisis in Chile had diminished the military preparedness of all three future belligerents. Chile, nevertheless, was relatively more prepared. For several decades Chile had been locked in a fierce military and commercial rivalry with Peru and had competed fiercely over control of the western seacoast. Now, Peru, like Bolivia, was virtually bankrupt, in political chaos on the eve of the war, and outclassed militarily by Chile. War decided this rivalry and assured Chilean hegemony on the Pacific coast.<o:p></o:p></div>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-17335533763059312352010-06-14T20:47:00.000+08:002014-05-01T11:13:08.395+08:00The Uncouth General Daza<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2al5tVArClcGNEs7NX66_ikgsM-X6WKGfwr9Y73MiHPECiMZ8t3D-BaDwnUlpvu2U-wf3oEfHmVl5UiQzrVBM6toh_0RQFGil1KVpDRgae1szVIVyJpgCpseHGK0FaMjimdOFl6EF5DkR/s1600/Hilarion_Daza_Groselle.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2al5tVArClcGNEs7NX66_ikgsM-X6WKGfwr9Y73MiHPECiMZ8t3D-BaDwnUlpvu2U-wf3oEfHmVl5UiQzrVBM6toh_0RQFGil1KVpDRgae1szVIVyJpgCpseHGK0FaMjimdOFl6EF5DkR/s320/Hilarion_Daza_Groselle.jpg" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal">Bolivian historians have bestowed on Hilarión Daza the epithet “el soldado mandón” (the imperious soldier). According to historian Humberto Vázquez Machicado, Daza was born in the constitutional capital of Sucre around 1840 the illegitimate son of an itinerant Italian snake-oil salesman named Grossolín. As a child, Daza had difficulty pronouncing his father’s surname, and from these attempts he received the ludicrous nickname of “Chocholín.” Not pleased, he started to use the surname of his mother. <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Daza received his limited education on the tough streets of Sucre as a small-time crook and con artist and in the rough barracks of the army. He showed a talent for being in the right place at the right time and rapidly rose in the military ranks with Mariano Melgarejo, whom in the end he betrayed for 10,000 pesos. Daza was overthrown in 1879, while at the battlefront in Tacna, and headed for Europe. There, he lived the good life until the enormous fortune that he had pilfered became depleted. He returned to Bolivia intent on heading another military coup but was killed in 1894.<o:p></o:p></div>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-9287266990842528332010-06-14T20:45:00.000+08:002014-05-01T11:13:08.543+08:00Bolivia: The Last 19th-Century Caudillo<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg80HBZYvzotshAkU1PEtgtPtpZCuTqRTo6xaX5_64FTFUfieMMvUEEA2vd-Q04HFQTz27_4PRFb_CdNSTcC35T8UG_st88zlC5wOPApYdWZ7DoSN3i293SYe3G8rMloId9k-XZMP6-lOu0/s1600/180PX-~1.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg80HBZYvzotshAkU1PEtgtPtpZCuTqRTo6xaX5_64FTFUfieMMvUEEA2vd-Q04HFQTz27_4PRFb_CdNSTcC35T8UG_st88zlC5wOPApYdWZ7DoSN3i293SYe3G8rMloId9k-XZMP6-lOu0/s320/180PX-~1.JPG" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal">The presidency of Hilarión Daza was landmark in Bolivian history. During his administration, the legislature approved the historic Liberal Constitution of 1879 (the county’s ninth since independence), which remained, with slight modifications in 1880, Bolivia’s fundamental governing charter until the 1930s. It protected private property rights and the economic concerns of Bolivia’s Big Silver industrialists and their Chilean interests. <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">General Daza’s rule, however, figures most tragically in the nation’s collective memory because it marked the loss of Bolivia’s access to the Pacific Ocean. His government and Congress of 1878 passed the infamous 10¢ tax on the nitrates exported by the British-Chilean Nitrates and Railroad Company of Antofagasta. This tax, which the bankrupt Bolivian treasury desperately needed, provided Chile with the perfect pretext to occupy Bolivia’s seacoast and launch a war with its neighbors. <o:p></o:p></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">President Daza cannot be blamed entirely for the war and the loss of the seacoast. Years before his government, Chilean, British, and U.S. capital had extended financial tentacles into virtually every profit-generating enterprise available to Bolivia: guano, nitrates, borax, even silver. The economic concessions of the Bolivian Litoral province produced an estimated 28 million pesos annually, according to historian José Fellman Velarde. By his calculations, this bonanza exceeded 14 times the Bolivian budget and eight times that of Chile at the time. This appropriation and Bolivia’s semicolonization by domestic and foreign capital caused the War of the Pacific as much as the incompetence and venality of Daza and earlier Bolivian regimes did. Already, on the eve of Daza’s military coup of May 1876, Chile in effect controlled the bulk of Bolivia’s coastal assets demographically and financially. By the time General Daza was overthrown in December 1879, the Chilean forces had also militarily occupied the entire Bolivian Litoral.<o:p></o:p></div>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-41834868601801036492010-05-31T12:57:00.000+08:002014-05-01T11:13:08.437+08:00Visit the Huascar<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgW7_9dyL3D6Z4bvLh48qUDypNQfEbyttbNf5bVApcTGFGAwbP7I9_HypBmeNAdw3Fbo4rgrSszI7DeVXg9ccn7yuwKy-xotv7ftBKtj4En0WsUcstUHS0e3ynKAGxseCRSe95Thw7v9IQk/s1600/derfreggrte.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="330" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgW7_9dyL3D6Z4bvLh48qUDypNQfEbyttbNf5bVApcTGFGAwbP7I9_HypBmeNAdw3Fbo4rgrSszI7DeVXg9ccn7yuwKy-xotv7ftBKtj4En0WsUcstUHS0e3ynKAGxseCRSe95Thw7v9IQk/s400/derfreggrte.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.huascar.cl/"><b><span style="font-size: large;">LINK</span></b></a></div>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-61417444867970822712010-04-16T13:52:00.000+08:002014-05-01T11:13:08.479+08:00Pirate Huáscar<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-Zgx9fFMbrffoEz21U6-_NtSzubch77kUB4TngVk8I3Bu8GeX1_WXsY7kDuDLSb6Ank8pO4dDVWkwUu8jQsvECIvw4LAMJQCmo3t81yxtPsJw1Cc9qa9hmyuBnimlKJbnJ7jx5M7KCrFK/s1600/sharamet.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="272" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh-Zgx9fFMbrffoEz21U6-_NtSzubch77kUB4TngVk8I3Bu8GeX1_WXsY7kDuDLSb6Ank8pO4dDVWkwUu8jQsvECIvw4LAMJQCmo3t81yxtPsJw1Cc9qa9hmyuBnimlKJbnJ7jx5M7KCrFK/s400/sharamet.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><i>HMS Shah and Amethyst in Action against the Peruvian Renegade Huascar, 29 May 1877 (NMM)</i><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">The dilemma of how to protect British interests overseas and police the world’s sea lanes without armored warships became apparent off the west coast of South America in May 1877, where the 6,250-ton Shah, iron-hulled but not armored, served as Pacific flagship at a time when Britain temporarily had no ironclads in the Pacific Ocean. On 7 May naval officers sympathetic to a Peruvian coup seized the 2,030-ton armored turret ship Huáscar. After leaving Callao, the Huáscar stopped at least four British merchant steamers on the high seas, stealing coal, taking mail addressed to the government of Peru, and taking some passengers prisoner. These violations of international law were brought to the attention of the British navy, and on 29 May the Shah and its escort, the 1,970-ton wooden screw corvette Amethyst, intercepted the Huáscar in the bay of Pacocha. During two hours of combat the Shah alone fired 237 rounds and the two British ships together registered more than 50 hits on the Huáscar, without seriously damaging it. The Shah also fired the first self-propelled torpedo ever used in a naval action, which missed its target. The Huáscar carried two 10-inch muzzle-loading rifles in a Coles turret protected by 8-inch wrought iron armor, but because its gunners were inexperienced and its turret had to be cranked by hand (with sixteen men manning the levers, it could make one revolution in fifteen minutes), it fired only a half-dozen rounds and registered no hits. That night, the Huáscar escaped Pacocha under cover of darkness and steamed for Iquique, where it surrendered to Peruvian authorities the following day. The incident demonstrated that even a lone relatively antiquated ironclad could defy the will of the world’s greatest naval power if the latter had no armored warship in the area. Britain responded by sending two ironclads to the Pacific, and after 1881 maintained at least one there.</div>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-56160846643945005472009-09-30T21:33:00.000+08:002014-05-01T11:13:08.468+08:00Chilean Navy in the War of the Pacific<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijOvBxrIZZa1-yXl3U5V1rpa3PMRrqogKLvgRBQiXLjmaEbnfwSTF0Oi1zvfdZqKxIlqGIPt6rRSpCDM2OXcYlXC_TphJA-kctZ3n6EOtH-VYcP77qetPy-WTiys3vtkz86clrRKcJ3P3J/s1600-h/377px-Lynch01.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijOvBxrIZZa1-yXl3U5V1rpa3PMRrqogKLvgRBQiXLjmaEbnfwSTF0Oi1zvfdZqKxIlqGIPt6rRSpCDM2OXcYlXC_TphJA-kctZ3n6EOtH-VYcP77qetPy-WTiys3vtkz86clrRKcJ3P3J/s320/377px-Lynch01.jpg" /></a><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><b>Rear-Admiral Patricio Lynch</b><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">After opening the War of the Pacific by using the casemate ships Cochrane and Blanco Encalada and the screw corvette O’Higgins to help secure Antofagasta, squadron commander Rear Admiral Williams Rebolledo landed troops north of the 23rd parallel at the smaller ports of Cobija and Tocopilla, and on 23 March 1879 took Calama, Bolivia’s last outpost on the Pacific Ocean. By early April, after Peru committed its army and navy to the defence of Bolivia, Williams moved up the coast to blockade Iquique, main port of the Peruvian province of Tarapacá. The two navies spent the first month of the war convoying troops, the Chileans from Valparaíso north to Antofagasta, the Peruvians from Callao to Arica, main port of the province of Tacna and their southernmost unblockaded port. Meanwhile, Chilean warships continued to blockade Iquique in between. After escorting troops to Arica, the Peruvian ironclads Independencia and Huáscar continued south to challenge the Chilean blockade of Iquique, then the landings at Antofagasta, en route passing (without encountering) most of the Chilean squadron, which Williams took north to disrupt the Peruvian convoys between Callao and Arica. Off Callao Williams learned that Peru had already transported its army to Arica and had sent the Independencia and Huáscar down the coast to Iquique, where he had left his oldest operational warships, the screw corvette Esmeralda and screw gunboat Covadonga, to maintain the blockade. Williams took his squadron back down the coast at full steam but was still en route on 21 May, when the two Peruvian ironclads fell upon the Esmeralda and Covadonga at Iquique.<br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">On the morning of 21 May 1879 the Esmeralda (Captain Arturo Prat) held its station at Iquique and engaged the Huáscar (Rear Admiral Miguel Grau) for three hours and forty minutes, taking a beating in order to enable the Covadonga (Captain Carlos Condell) to escape to the south, with the Independencia (Captain Guillermo Moore) giving chase. For much of the morning Prat positioned the Esmeralda between the Huáscar and the waterfront of the Peruvian city, forcing the ironclad’s gunners to be extraordinarily careful in order to avoid killing their own countrymen with missed shots. Prat’s strategy worked, at least until Peruvian forces ashore began peppering his ship with artillery and rifle fire. When the crossfire began to take its toll among his men, Prat made the fateful decision to leave his position, even though he had no hope of successfully breaking out of the harbour. Grau promptly closed with the Huáscar and rammed the Esmeralda three times, sinking it just after noon. In arguably the greatest act of bravado in a naval battle since John Paul Jones captured hms Serapis from the stricken Bonhomme Richard a century earlier, Prat responded by ordering his crew to board the Huáscar from the deck of his sinking ship. He was killed on the deck of the Peruvian ironclad alongside a seaman who scrambled aboard with him; when Grau rammed the Esmeralda again, Lieutenant Ignacio Serrano and a second wave of a dozen borders met the same fate. Prat’s second-in-command, Captain Luis Uribe, subsequently refused to strike his flag, and the Esmeralda sank with its colours still flying. Midshipman Enrique Riquelme continued to work one of the old corvette’s guns until the very last, and was among those who perished with the ship. While the Huáscar lost just one of its crew in the battle, 148 of the Esmeralda’s 198 officers and seamen were killed; Uribe was among those pulled from the water, taken prisoner aboard the Huáscar, then turned over to the Peruvian garrison of Iquique. During the same hours an equally compelling drama unfolded down the coast from Iquique, as the Covadonga steamed toward Antofagasta with the Independencia in hot pursuit. In the early afternoon off Punta Gruesa, the shallow-draught steamer passed safely over uncharted rocks, which trapped the much heavier Peruvian frigate. With the Independencia hard aground, Condell doubled back and placed the Covadonga across its bow, out of reach of its broadsides, and raked it repeatedly. The Peruvians returned fire with their deck rifle, but once its ammunition was exhausted Moore struck his flag. While the Esmeralda, an unarmoured ship whose captain refused to surrender, lost three-quarters of its crew that day, the Independencia, an ironclad that did haul down its colours, suffered just 5 killed and 18 wounded out of a crew of 300. The Covadonga lost 4 killed and 3 wounded out of 116. Shortly thereafter the Huáscar arrived to chase off the Covadonga, salvage the Independencia’s heavy guns and rescue the survivors. The battles of 21 May reduced by half the armoured strength of Peru’s navy, while the valiant fight of the Esmeralda made Prat a national hero.<br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Having secured a clear advantage at sea, Chile set about transporting more troops to the north for an eventual march on Lima. The war and navy minister, Sotomayor, appointed Rear Admiral Patricio Lynch to co-ordinate the effort, which the Peruvian navy sought to disrupt by using the Huáscar as a raider. Sometimes cruising alone, sometimes with the screw corvette Unión, the Huáscar could strike with impunity as long as neither of the two Chilean ironclads was in the vicinity. Admiral Grau developed an uncanny ability to evade them but had an early brush with disaster on the night of 9–10 July in the harbour at Iquique, where he had hoped to sink the Chilean navy’s coaling barque Matías Cousiño. He found only the screw corvette Magallanes (Captain Juan José Latorre) maintaining the blockade there but, unfortunately for Grau, Latorre sought to emulate the earlier heroism of his old classmate Prat and duelled with the Huáscar for 45 minutes, closing to within 300 metres, even though his own ship had the speed to flee. The Matías Cousiño escaped, and Latorre’s bold action detained the Huáscar long enough for the casemate ship Cochrane (Captain Galvarino Riveros) to reach the scene, turning the tables and forcing Grau to flee. In the weeks that followed the Huáscar enjoyed its greatest success, destroying a number of small cargo vessels and, on 23 July, capturing the Chilean transport Rimac off Antofagasta. This setback prompted Sotomayor to sack Williams, elevate Riveros to rear admiral and squadron commander, give Latorre the vacated command of the Cochrane, and get personally involved in formulating a plan to trap the Huáscar. In the process they all but ignored the Unión, which in August ranged as far south as Punta Arenas on the Strait of Magellan in a futile attempt to interdict merchantmen carrying arms shipments to Chile from Europe. The Chilean navy waited until after the threat of the Huáscar was removed before it launched a similar mission against merchantmen carrying weapons to Peru from the United States; eventually, over the summer of 1879–80, the Amazonas and later the corvette O’Higgins ranged as far north as the coast of Panama but had no luck in their efforts.<br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">For the purposes of hunting down the Huáscar the Chilean squadron was split into two divisions, one consisting of Riveros’s flagship Blanco Encalada, the screw schooner Covadonga and the coaling barque Matías Cousiño, the other of Latorre’s Cochrane, the screw corvette O’Higgins (Captain Jorge Montt) and the armed transport Loa. Meanwhile Grau remained bold in his use of the Huáscar, on 28 August bombarding Antofagasta in broad daylight and engaging the Chilean warships there – the screw corvettes Abtao and Magallanes – before Riveros arrived with the Blanco Encalada to chase him off. On the morning of 8 October Latorre’s division finally spotted the Huáscar steaming with the Unión off Punta Angamos, north of Antofagasta. Grau immediately sent away the unarmoured Unión, prompting Latorre to send the O’Higgins and Loa to chase it, leaving the two ironclads to duel alone. The ensuing battle featured the first use of armour-piercing Palliser shells, which the 9-inch Armstrong guns of the Cochrane fired with deadly accuracy as the range fell to 2,000 metres and less. Riveros arrived with the Blanco Encalada some 45 minutes after the fighting began, but Latorre’s ship continued to dominate the action. By the time the Huáscar surrendered another 45 minutes later, the Chileans had recorded perhaps the best gunnery performance in the history of modern naval warfare, impressing British observers with an amazing 27 hits on 76 rounds fired. Of the 205 men aboard the Huáscar 61 were killed, including Grau. The guns in the turret of the Huáscar (which had to be cranked by hand until the installation of its steam winch in 1885) managed just three hits against the two Chilean ironclads, killing none and wounding seven aboard the Cochrane, and causing no damage to either ship. Unlike the Independencia, the Huáscar was not damaged beyond repair, and a boarding party led by Lieutenant Juan Simpson foiled the crew’s efforts to scuttle the ship. Recommissioned within weeks, it saw its first action under Chilean colours in February 1880.<br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Taking full advantage of Chile’s command of the sea, Rear Admiral Lynch orchestrated the transport of 9,500 troops from Antofagasta northward to Pisagua, where they were put ashore unopposed early in November 1879 after Latorre’s division, consisting of the Cochrane and three unarmoured warships, shelled the landing site. Meanwhile, Riveros took the Blanco Encalada and the rest of the squadron farther north to blockade the harbour of Arica, where he captured the screw gunboat Pilcomayo on 18 November. After escorting the convoy to Pisagua, Latorre added his division to the blockade at Iquique, where the Peruvian garrison surrendered on 23 November, finally freeing Uribe and other survivors of the Esmeralda who had been held prisoner there since May. Over the same weeks, the Chilean army marched inland from Pisagua, and on 27 November defeated a joint Peruvian-Bolivian army at Tarapacá, securing for Chile the southernmost Peruvian province of the same name. Thereafter, the action centred around Arica, principal seaport of Tacna, the neighbouring province to the north. On 27 February 1880 the old Peruvian monitor Manco Capac, anchored there as harbour watch, exchanged fire with the Huáscar when the latter arrived to shell the port. Riveros and Latorre soon arrived with the rest of the squadron, which joined in the bombardment. Army units put ashore in early March subsequently laid siege to Arica from the land side. The Peruvian garrison held out for three months, but on 6 June, sensing the end was near, the naval detachment blew up the Manco Capac to keep it out of Chilean hands. The following day Chilean troops stormed the city and forced its surrender.<br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">In April 1880, after the initial bombardment of Arica, Riveros left Latorre’s division behind to blockade the port while he took the Blanco Encalada, the Huáscar and the rest of the squadron north to blockade Callao, in preparation for the final Chilean assault on Lima. Following the capitulation of Arica, Latorre brought the Cochrane and its unarmoured escorts to join him. Against this overwhelming force the Peruvians deployed a flotilla of torpedo boats, some improvised, others purchased in Britain over the past several months. Copying tactics used by the Russian Black Sea fleet against the Ottoman navy in the recent Russo-Turkish War (1877–8), they managed to sink the armed transport Loa in July and the screw gunboat Covadonga in September. Thereafter, fears of losing a larger or more significant warship prevented Riveros from maintaining a tighter blockade. Chile soon deployed its own torpedo boats, and the rival torpedo flotillas subsequently dominated the action in and around Callao harbour, with each losing one boat.<br />
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</div><div class="MsoNormal">Because Rear Admiral Lynch’s performance as co-ordinator of troop transports in 1879 had given him such valuable expertise in the logistical side of amphibious operations, the war and navy minister, Sotomayor, appointed him to command the army’s expeditionary force for the final strike against Lima. His forces embarked from Arica and in November 1880 landed up the coast at Pisco. From there, Lynch began his march on Lima, staying near the coast so that Riveros’s squadron could provide covering fire as he advanced. The navy’s heavy guns supported the army in its decisive victory at Chorrillos (13 January 1881), which forced the Peruvians to abandon their capital. Three days later the Peruvian navy scuttled its last ironclad, the immobile Callao harbour watch Atahualpa, then surrendered. Over the following months the Chilean navy took the surrender of the smaller Peruvian ports north of Callao; the capitulation of Paita to the Huáscar in June 1881 left the entire coast of Peru in Chilean hands. The end of the campaign at sea did not bring an end to the war, since neither Peru nor Bolivia would agree to terms. After occupying Lima, Lynch co-ordinated the fight against Peruvian resistance in the interior for another two and a half years. In October 1883, three months after the fighting ended, Peru formally ceded to Chile the provinces of Tacna and Tarapacá with the ports of Arica and Iquique. At the same time, Bolivia refused to acknowledge the Chilean conquest of its Pacific coastal province and port of Antofagasta. An invasion from Peru by Lynch’s army led to a truce in April 1884, finally ending the fighting, but Bolivia was never occupied by Chilean troops and waited until 1904 to sign a formal peace treaty.<br />
</div>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-65345249244983786452009-06-17T13:43:00.003+08:002014-05-01T11:13:08.493+08:00Morro Solar<div style="background-color: #990000; color: #cccccc;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"></span></div><div style="background-color: #990000; color: #cccccc;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"><span id="lblText"><b><span class="Apple-style-span">The </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span">Morro Solar</span></i><span class="Apple-style-span"> of Chorrillos was the scene of a battle, was once an exclusive beach resort in the </span></b></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"><span id="lblText"><b><span class="Apple-style-span">1800s and nowadays is home to an observatory, some monuments and the exclusive Regatta’s club.</span></b></span></span></div><div style="background-color: #990000; color: #cccccc;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"><span class="Apple-style-span"><img alt="http://www.flickr.com/photos/pepopepo/2194278872/" height="375" src="http://farm3.static.flickr.com/2083/2194278872_6af802ce5a.jpg?v=0" style="margin: 0px 5px; padding: 0px;" title="http://www.flickr.com/photos/pepopepo/2194278872/" width="500" /></span><sup><span class="Apple-style-span"><br />
Photo: </span><a class="bloglinks" href="http://www.flickr.com/photos/pepopepo/2194278872/" style="text-decoration: none;" target="_blank"><span class="Apple-style-span">Peru Pepo</span></a></sup><span class="Apple-style-span"> </span><b><span class="Apple-style-span">The Morro Solar as seen from Miraflores</span></b></span></div><div style="background-color: #990000; color: #cccccc;"><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"><span class="Apple-style-span">Jutting out into the Pacific Ocean, the Morro Solar can be seen all along the city’s coast. It’s history began as home to Peru’s indigenous - as the settlement of Armatambo, long since destroyed and forgotten. After the conquest the area around the hill became known as Chorrillos and country retreats were built by Viceroyals. Later during Peru’s struggle for independence Chorrillos was used as a port - an alternative to the Spanish controlled Callao. Chorrillos eventually became more developed, the sea-front malecon was built and connections to elsewhere by road and train <span style="background-color: white;"></span>were constructed. Still, Chorrillos was little more than a fashionable seaside resort with large residences owned by the wealthy - the area around the Morro Solar had some of the nicest beaches</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"><span class="Apple-style-span">.</span></span></div><div style="background-color: #990000; color: #cccccc;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"><span class="Apple-style-span">When Chile invaded Peru for it’s mineral wealth in the </span><a href="http://enperublog.com/tag/war-of-the-pacific/" style="text-decoration: none;" target="_blank"><span class="Apple-style-span">War of the Pacific</span></a><span class="Apple-style-span">, they were determined to reach Lima to ensure complete capitulation. Peru had amassed a huge army that was positioned across the desert from Chorrillos to San Juan. A series of battles took place in which the superior tactics of the Chileans saw a Peruvian defeat and the end of the war. One of these battles took place on the Morro Solar, now home to monuments to the dead. Defeat on the Morro Solar lead to the destruction of Chorrillos as Chilean troops burned and pillaged their way unopposed towards Lima.</span></span></div><div style="background-color: #990000; color: #cccccc;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"><span class="Apple-style-span">Today, as well as monuments of the battle you will find hundreds of radio towers serving the whole southern half of Lima, the height of the Morro, of course, being an ideal place to transmit from. The radio towers are accompanied by the Planetary Observatory, the first in Peru, made by engineer Víctor Estremadoyro.</span></span><br />
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More high-tension steal towers form the shape of a huge cross where the morro meets the sea. The cross, lit up during the night and shining across the ocean, was built to welcome Pope John Paul II on his visit to the country. Next to the cross there is also a statue of the Virgin Mary that is regularly visited by devoted Catholics.</span></span><br />
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At the base of the Morro Solar is the exclusive Regattas Club, where if you have the money to pay the yearly fee, you have access to various club facilities. Away from the ocean but also at the base you will find the other extreme, </span><a href="http://enperublog.com/2008/03/06/limas-other-side/" style="text-decoration: none;" target="_blank"><i><span class="Apple-style-span">invasions</span></i></a><span class="Apple-style-span"> - homes built with no permission out of cheap available materials. Near here you will find the </span><a href="http://enperublog.com/2007/05/22/cevicheria-sonia/" style="text-decoration: none;" target="_blank"><span class="Apple-style-span">cevicheria Sonia</span></a><span class="Apple-style-span"> and below, on the beach, a pier, fishing boats and more restaurants - continuing the area’s fishing and sea-ferring history. </span></span></div><div style="background-color: #990000; color: #cccccc;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"></span></div>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-84517373188518247862009-06-17T13:39:00.001+08:002014-05-01T11:13:08.522+08:00Chile returns Peru’s historic books<div style="color: #999999;"><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"><img alt="" class="alignleft" height="180" src="http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3069/2699545378_7875d6c5a1_m.jpg" style="display: inline; float: left; margin: 0px 5px 2px; padding: 4px;" title="Peruvian Books" width="240" /><span id="lblText"><span class="Apple-style-span">Realising that the new found mineral wealth on the pacific coast lay entirely in Bolivian and Peruvian hands, and sparked by Bolivia’s plan to tax Chilean companies extracting it, Chile launched an invasion against the two nations. After their successful land grab in the south, Chilean troops continued up the coast, burning down towns and massacring thousands. When they reached Lima, all resistance was put down and troops began ransacking Peruvian national treasures - Lima having been the centre of the Spanish empire in the new world.</span></span></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"><span class="Apple-style-span">Some of the many things taken were tens of thousands of books. Now, 126 years later, Chile has decided to return those books most obviously of Peruvian origin. The announcement was made some months ago, and yesterday the 3,788 books arrived in Peru’s National Library. The books, some even from the 1500s and 1600s, bare the emblems of Spanish Peru and the </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span">Library of Lima</span></i><span class="Apple-style-span">. Books from after the formation of the republic bare Peruvian emblems. Chile’s director of the National Office of Libraries, Archives and Museums said that these were the books that were obviously not Chilean property and should be returned. The antique texts are written in Spanish, Latin, Greek and French.</span></span><br />
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"><span class="Apple-style-span">At the same time, Chilean businesses have been asked to create a fund to be used to return more stolen Peruvian books to their home. Of the thousands of books stolen from Peru many are now in private hands and these are the ones that Peru now hopes to have returned. Miguel Altahus of the Universidad Católica states his opinion that “the private sector should help by creating a fund under Chilean law to offer to buy books that private individuals might have and want to return”. </span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Verdana,Verdana,Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 16px;"></span></div>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-80762956127702719312009-06-17T13:33:00.003+08:002016-08-23T16:09:04.407+08:00War of the Pacific at About Com.<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana"; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"></span><br />
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<span style="color: black;"><b>Called the Guerra del Pacifico, this 1879-1883 conflict involved Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and resulted in Chilean annexation of valuable disputed territory on the Pacific.</b></span></h1>
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<span style="color: red;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana"; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";"><a class="al" href="http://gosouthamerica.about.com/cs/southamerica/a/ChiGlraNaval.htm" onclick="zT(this,'18/1R4/Wa')" style="background-image: url("http://z.about.com/f/bt/brs2.gif"); background-position: 0px 3px; background-repeat: no-repeat; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 15px; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank">Glorias Navales</a></span></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana"; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";">Chile annually celebrates the naval victories of the War of the Pacific on May 21. The Battle of Iquique and the capture of the iron monitor Huáscar were major turning points in the war with Peru and Bolivia.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: red;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana"; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";"><a class="ol" href="http://www.gci275.com/peru/chile.shtml" onclick="zT(this,'1/XJ/Ya')" style="background-image: url("http://z.about.com/f/bt/bro2.gif"); background-position: 0px 3px; background-repeat: no-repeat; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 15px; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank">Defeat</a></span></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana"; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";">"No era was more traumatic for Peru than the War of the Pacific and its aftermath, in which Peru and Bolivia squared off against their southern neighbor, Chile. It had an impact on the solidity of central government and the shape of local societies well into the 20th century."</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: red;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana"; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";"><a class="ol" href="https://www.onwar.com/aced/chrono/c1800s/yr70/fpacific1879.htm" onclick="zT(this,'1/XJ/Ya')" style="background-image: url("http://z.about.com/f/bt/bro2.gif"); background-position: 0px 3px; background-repeat: no-repeat; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 15px; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank">War of the Pacific</a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";"> </span></span></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana"; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";">"War of the Pacific, Spanish GUERRA DEL PACÍFICO (1879-83), conflict involving Chile, Bolivia, and Peru, which resulted in Chilean annexation of valuable disputed territory on the Pacific coast. It grew out of a dispute between Chile and Bolivia over control of a part of the Atacama Desert that lies between the 23rd and 26th parallels on the Pacific coast of South America."</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: red;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana"; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";"><a class="ol" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Pacific" onclick="zT(this,'1/XJ/Ya')" style="background-image: url("http://z.about.com/f/bt/bro2.gif"); background-position: 0px 3px; background-repeat: no-repeat; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 15px; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank">War of the Pacific</a></span></span></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana"; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";">"The War of the Pacific, sometimes called the Saltpeter War in reference to its original cause, was fought between Chile and the joint forces of Bolivia and Peru, from 1879 to 1884."</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: red;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana"; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";"><a class="ol" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Pacific.html" onclick="zT(this,'1/XJ/Ya')" style="background-image: url("http://z.about.com/f/bt/bro2.gif"); background-position: 0px 3px; background-repeat: no-repeat; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 15px; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank">War of the Pacific </a></span></span></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana"; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";">"...war between Chile and the allied nations, Peru and Bolivia; also called the Chile-Peruvian War. The trouble began when President Hilarión Daza of Bolivia rescinded (Feb., 1879) the contract that had given a Chilean company the right to exploit nitrate deposits in Atacama, a province of Bolivia."</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: red;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana"; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";"><a class="ol" href="http://countrystudies.us/chile/15.htm" onclick="zT(this,'1/XJ/Ya')" style="background-image: url("http://z.about.com/f/bt/bro2.gif"); background-position: 0px 3px; background-repeat: no-repeat; font-size: 12px; font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 15px; text-decoration: underline;" target="_blank">War of the Pacific, 1879-83</a></span></span></span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana"; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana";">"Chile's borders were a matter of contention throughout the nineteenth century. The War of the Pacific began on the heels of an international economic recession that focused attention on resources in outlying zones."</span></span></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: "verdana"; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;"></span>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-21692297923271910612009-06-17T13:28:00.000+08:002014-05-01T11:13:08.409+08:00Chile: War of the Pacific<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: medium; "><p>Chile's borders were a matter of contention throughout the nineteenth century. The War of the Pacific began on the heels of an international economic recession that focused attention on resources in outlying zones. Under an 1866 treaty, Chile and Bolivia divided the disputed area encompassing the Atacama Desert at 24° south latitude (located just south of the port of Antofagasta) in the understanding that the nationals of both nations could freely exploit mineral deposits in the region. Both nations, however, would share equally all the revenue generated by mining activities in the region. But Bolivia soon repudiated the treaty, and its subsequent levying of taxes on a Chilean company operating in the area led to an arms race between Chile and its northern neighbors of Bolivia and Peru.</p><p>Fighting broke out when Chilean entrepreneurs and mine-owners in present-day Tarapacá Region and Antofagasta Region, then belonging to Peru and Bolivia, respectively, resisted new taxes, the formation of monopoly companies, and other impositions. In those provinces, most of the deposits of nitrate--a valuable ingredient in fertilizers and explosives--were owned and mined by Chileans and Europeans, in particular the British. Chile wanted not only to acquire the nitrate fields but also to weaken Peru and Bolivia in order to strengthen its own strategic preeminence on the Pacific Coast. Hostilities were exacerbated because of disagreements over boundary lines, which in the desert had always been vague. Chile and Bolivia accused each other of violating the 1866 treaty. Although Chile expanded northward as a result of the War of the Pacific, its rights to the conquered territory continued to be questioned by Peru, and especially by Bolivia, throughout the twentieth century.</p><p>War began when Chilean troops crossed the northern frontier in 1879. Although a mutual defense pact had allied Peru and Bolivia since 1873, Chile's more professional, less politicized military overwhelmed the two weaker countries on land and sea. The turning point of the war was the occupation of Lima on January 17, 1881, a humiliation the Peruvians never forgave. Chile sealed its victory with the 1883 Treaty of Ancón, which also ended the Chilean occupation of Lima.</p><p>As a result of the war and the Treaty of Ancón, Chile acquired two northern provinces--Tarapacá from Peru and Antofagasta from Bolivia. These territories encompassed most of the Atacama Desert and blocked off Bolivia's outlet to the Pacific Ocean. The war gave Chile control over nitrate exports, which would dominate the national economy until the 1920s, possession of copper deposits that would eclipse nitrate exports by the 1930s, greatpower status along the entire Pacific Coast of South America, and an enduring symbol of patriotic pride in the person of naval hero Arturo Prat Chacón. The War of the Pacific also bestowed on the Chilean armed forces enhanced respect, the prospect of steadily increasing force levels, and a long-term external mission guarding the borders with Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina. In 1885 a German military officer, Emil Körner, was contracted to upgrade and professionalize the armed forces along Prussian lines. In subsequent years, better education produced not only a more modern officer corps but also a military leadership capable of questioning civilian management of national development.</p><p>After battling the Peruvians and Bolivians in the north, the military turned to engaging the Araucanians in the south. The final defeat of the Mapuche in 1882 opened up the southern third of the national territory to wealthy Chileans who quickly carved out immense estates. No homestead act or legion of family farmers stood in their way, although a few middle-class and immigrant agriculturalists moved in. Some Mapuche fled over the border to Argentina. The army herded those who remained onto tribal reservations in 1884, where they would remain mired in poverty for generations. Like the far north, these southern provinces would become stalwarts of national reform movements, critical of the excessive concentration of power and wealth in and around Santiago.</p><p>Soon controlled by British and then by United States investors, the nitrate fields became a classic monocultural boom and bust. The boom lasted four decades. Export taxes on nitrates often furnished over 50 percent of all state revenues, relieving the upper class of tax burdens. The income of the Chilean treasury nearly quadrupled in the decade after the war. The government used the funds to expand education and transportation. The mining bonanza generated demand for agricultural goods from the center and south and even for locally manufactured items, spawning a new plutocracy. Even more notable was the emergence of a class-conscious, nationalistic, ideological labor movement in the northern mining camps and elsewhere.</p><p>Prosperity also attracted settlers from abroad. Although small in number compared with those arriving in Argentina, European immigrants became an important element of the new middle class; their numbers included several future manufacturing tycoons. These arrivals came from both northern and southern Europe. People also emigrated from the Middle East, Peru, and Bolivia. Although most immigrants ended up in the cities of Chile, a minority succeeded at farming, especially in the south. In the early twentieth century, a few members of the Chilean elite tried to blame the rise of leftist unions and parties on foreign agitators, but the charge rang hollow in a country where less than 5 percent of the population had been born abroad.</p></span>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-16635194631058563182009-06-03T23:54:00.001+08:002014-05-01T11:13:08.392+08:00”LOS HEROES OLVIDADOS“LA GUERRA DEL PACIFICO 1879 – 1883<br />”LOS HEROES OLVIDADOS“<br />Por: Dr. Cesar Augusto Salomón<br /><br />CAMPAÑA NAVAL<br />MUERTOS Y HERIDOS<br /><br />COMBATE NAVAL DE IQUIQUE 21 Mayo 1879<br />MONITOR “HUASCAR”<br />Capitán de Fragata: RAMON FREYRE<br />Teniente Segundo: JORGE VELARDE<br />Artillero: ALVARO TRELLES<br />Marineros: MANUEL CARDENAS<br />BASILO CHAVEZ<br />MANUEL PINEDA<br />Soldados: ANACLETO ALARCON<br />JOSE M. ESTEBAN<br /><br />FRAGATA“INDEPENDENCIA”<br />Capitán de Corveta: RUPERTO GUTIERREZ<br />Alférez de Fragata: GUILLERMO GARCIA GARCIA<br /><br />COLUMNA CONSTITUCION:<br />Subteniente: LUIS BALLESTRA<br />Sargento Primero: MANUEL CARRILLO<br />Soldados:<br />FRANCISCO CHAVEZ<br />JOSE DEL CARMEN HEREDIA<br />MANUEL LANDA<br />JUAN CARDENAS<br />DOMINGO GARCIA<br />LUIS BENTANCOURT<br /><br />GUARNICION:<br />Cabo: JULIO SALAS<br />Soldados:<br />ELIAS GUTIERREZ<br />MANUEL HUAMAN<br />MANUEL SILVA<br />NORBERTO DOMINGUEZ<br />ANTONIO URQUINO<br /><br />TIPULACION:<br />FEDERICO NAVARRETE<br />JACINTO SANTA CRUZ<br />JOSE PEREYRA PABLO POLIVIAN<br />JAMES HERLY<br />FABRONIO GARCIA<br />JOSE ARIAS<br /><br />COMBATE DE ANTOFOGASTA 28 AGOSTO 1879<br />MONITOR “HUASCAR”<br />Teniente Segundo: CARLOS DE LOS HEROS<br />Marinero: ALCIDES GUTIERREZ<br /><br />COMBATE DE AMGAMOS 8 OCTUBRE 1879<br />MONITOR “HUASCAR”<br />Contralmirante MIGUEL GRAU Comandante de la Primera División Naval y del “HUASCAR”<br /><br />ESTADO MAYOR:<br />Capitán de Fragata: MANUEL MELITON CARVAJAL<br />Mayor: JOSE N. UGARTECHE<br /><br />Oficiales de Guerra:<br />Capitán de Corbeta: ELIAS AGUIRRE<br />Tenientes Primero:<br />DIEGO FERRE<br />JOSE MELITON RODRIGUEZ<br />PEDRO GAREZON<br />Tenientes Segundos:<br />FERMIN DIEZ CANSECO<br />ENRIQUE PALACIOS<br />GERVACIO SANTILLANA<br />Alférez de Fragata: RICARDO HERRERA<br />Capitán Infantería: MARIANO BUSTAMANTE<br />Oficiales de Mar:<br />NICOLAS DUEÑAS<br />FEDERICO NOGUERA<br />MANUEL PINEDA<br />JOSE SALAS<br />JOSE SELENDON<br />TIBURCIO RIOS<br />WILLIAN LEONARD<br />LUIS LANDA<br />JOSE DEL C. GOMEZ<br />WILLIAM MICHEL<br />EDUARDO FORD<br />ESTEVES JEEVES<br /><br />Oficiales Mayores:<br />Cirujanos:<br />SANTIAGO TAVARA<br />FELIPE MIGUEL ROTALDE<br />Practicante de Medicina: JOSE IGNACIO CANALES<br />Aspirantes:<br />FEDERICO C. SOTOMAYOR<br />DOMINGO VALLE RIESTRA<br />GRIMALDO VILLAVICENCIO<br />Artilleros:<br />ALVERT AVENELL<br />JOHN DUNNET<br />EDUARDO PERRY<br />SAMUEL VARNISH<br />ATANACIO CALOYERAS<br />JULIO FELIPPE<br />ENRIQUE VEGESSE<br />JAMES ANDERSON<br />MANUEL GEORGIADES<br />GEORGE HARRIS<br />FEDERICO MEIGGS<br />MICHAEL MURPHY<br />HENRY OTTO<br />MANUEL PANAY<br />GEORGE SMITH<br />JULIO PABLO<br />JONHN LUMBY<br />FAUSTINO COLAN<br />TOMAS SALAZAR<br />JOHN DEVINE<br />Marineros:<br />PEDRO UNANUE<br />APARICIO ROBLES<br />JOSE VELASQUEZ<br />PEDRO RODRIGUEZ<br />JOSE FELIX TORRES<br />Grumetes:<br />JOSE MANTILLA<br />SATURNINO MEJIA<br />MIGUEL VACARCEL<br />ARTURO MASIAS<br />Fogonero: ISIDRO ALCIBAR<br />Carbonero: JUAN DAVILA<br /><br />Columna “Constitución”.<br />Soldados:<br />QUITERIO GALLARDO<br />VICENTE JIMENEZ<br />JUAN VILLARREAL<br />MODESTO RUIDIAZ<br />ISIDORO ORUE<br /><br />Batallón “Ayacucho”<br />Sargento Primero: FRANCISCO RETES<br />Sargentos Segundos:<br />ANACLETO ALARCON<br />MIGUEL SALAZR<br />Cabo: FIDEL CALVO<br />Soldados:<br />GUILLERMO BARRIOS<br />AMBROSIO FERNANDEZ<br />FRANCISCO GUTIERREZ<br />MARIANO VILCAHUAMAN<br />MARIANO ZEGARRA<br />HIPOLITO BELTRAN<br />FIDEL TALAVERA<br />MANUEL BORJA<br />JOSE CALDERON<br />CELESTINO VALDIVIA<br /><br />RUPTURA DEL BLOQUEO DE ARICA 17 MARZO 1880<br />CORBETA “UNION”<br />Sargento: LUIS HIDALGO<br />Marineros: LORENZO PALACIOS<br />JOSE VELASQUEZ<br />Calafate: JUAN APOSTOL<br /><br />ACCIONES EN EL CALLAO 22 ABRIL 1880<br />CORBETA“UNION”<br />Artillero: JOHN GRANT<br />LANCHA “ARNO”<br />Marinero: ZENOBIO NOEL<br />Civiles:<br />VICENTE MURIETA<br />JOSE M. MEDINA<br />JUAN LOYOLA<br /><br />23 ABRIL 1880<br />LANCHA “URCOS”<br />Teniente: JOSE M. DELGADO<br />Alférez de Fragata: DOMINGO VALLE RIESTRA<br /><br /><br />10 MAYO 1880<br />TRANSPORTE “LIMEÑA”<br />Guardiamarina: JOSE I. ARBULU<br />Grumete: MANUEL RAMOS<br />Marineros:<br />MELCHOR MEDINA<br />CARLOS VIDELA<br />JOSE M. CARRILLO<br /><br />CORBETA “UNION”<br />Artillero:<br />EUGENIO HILLER<br />AVELINO MENDRAL<br />MANUEL VARGAS<br />Marinero: MARINO FERRE<br /><br />TRANSPORTE “OROYA”<br />Artillero: JUAN HERCELLES<br />Calafate: JUAN CHAMABA<br /><br />CAMPAÑA DEL SUR<br />COMBATE DE PISAGUA 2 NOVIEMBRE 1879<br />MUERTOS<br />Comandante: N. RIVADENEIRA<br />Mayor: ABEL LATORRE<br />Capitán: JOSE VICENTE RODRIGUEZ<br />Tenientes Primeros:<br />MANUEL HERRERA<br />LUIS TAMAYO<br />Sub Teniente: HIGINIO MORALES<br />Inspector: N. BARRO<br />Civil: FRANCISCO LOZANO<br /><br />COMBATE DE GERMANIA 6 NOVIEMBRE 1879<br />MUERTOS<br />Comandante: JOSE B. SEPULVEDA<br />Tenientes:<br />TEODOMIRO PUENTE ARNAO<br />JOSE SOSA<br />CARLOS MESIAS<br />N. DEL POZO<br />JOSE LOZA<br />OCTAVIO DEL MAZO<br /><br />BATALLA DE “SAN FRANCISCO” 19 NOVIEMBRE 1879<br />Comandantes:<br />LADISLAO ESPINAR<br />MANUEL ROSELLO<br />RAMON CASTILLO<br />Mayor: MANUEL CORDOVA<br />Capitanes:<br />JOSE ALFARO<br />MANUEL PRIETO<br />Tenientes:<br />JOSE MOSCOSO<br />LUIS AGREDA<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />MARIANO ARAUJO<br />PALMA<br />BERNARDO GODOY<br />WENCESLAO BRACHO<br /><br />BATALLA DE TARAPACA 27 NOVIEMBRE 1879<br />MUERTOS Y HERIDOS<br /><br />PRIMERA DIVISION<br />Batallón “Cazadores del Cuzco”:<br />Sub Teniente: ENRIQUE VARGAS<br />Batallón “De la Guardia”:<br />Capitanes:<br />CARLOS ALBERTO ODIAGA<br />ENRIQUE VARGAS<br /><br />SEGUNDA DIVISION<br />JEM CORONEL: ISAAC RECAVARREN<br />Batallón “Zepita”:<br />Comandante: JUAN BAUTISTA ZUBIAGA<br />Mayor:<br />BENITO PARDO FIGUEROA<br />JUAN CALDERON<br />LUIS LAZO<br />Capitanes:<br />FRANCISCO PARDO FIGUEROA<br />JULIAN CRUZADO<br />Teniente: TELEMACO DELFIN<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />JUAN A. CACERES<br />FEDERICO RAMIREZ<br />JUAN MENESES<br />Corneta: MARIANO MAMANI<br /><br /><br />Regimiento “Dos de Mayo”:<br />Coronel: MANUEL SUAREZ<br />Comandante: MARIANO MORAN<br />Capitán: MANUEL ARENAS<br />Teniente: DANIEL TORRICO<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />MANUEL OSORIO<br />LUCAS GAO<br />TOMAS BERENGUEL<br />GUILLERMO BELLO<br />PEDRO TORRES<br />JOSE TORRES PAZ<br /><br />TERCERA DIVISION<br />Batallón “Ayacucho”<br />Capitán: JUAN DE DIOS VERA<br />Tenientes:<br />JUAN B. TAFUR<br />MANUEL PONCE<br /><br />Batallón “Guardias de Arequipa”:<br />Capitán: CLODOMIRO CHAVEZ VALDIVIA<br /><br />CUARTA DIVISION<br />Batallón “Lima”:<br />Capitán: MARIANO VERNALES<br />Teniente: JOSE MARIA OCHOA<br />Soldado: MANUEL CONDORI<br /><br /><br />QUINTA DIVSION<br />Jefe: Coronel: JOSE MIGUEL DE LOS RIOS<br /><br />Columnas Navales:<br />Comandante: JOSE MARIA MELENDEZ<br />Capitán: SIXTO MELENDEZ<br />Teniente: PEDRO PORTILLO<br /><br />Columna “Los Bolivianos”:<br />Capitanes:<br />ANICETO RIVERA<br />JUAN RODRIGUEZ<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />NICANOR MONJE<br />ADOLFO VARGAS<br />RUBEN CORDOVA<br /><br />Columna “Tarapacá”:<br />Mayor: FRANCISCO PERLA<br />Capitanes:<br />ANTONIO ROSENDO CARRION<br />FEDERICO RIVERA<br />AMBROSIO GUIMARAES<br />Sub Teniente: JOSE GAVILANO<br /><br />Batallón “Iquique”:<br />Coronel: ALFONSO UGARTE<br />Mayores:<br />LORENZO INFANTAS<br />ROSENDO BALLON<br />Capitán: JOSE OLIVENCIA<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />ALBERTO GIL<br />MARIANO ARIAS<br /><br />SEXTA DIVISION<br />Batallón “Primero de Ayacucho”:<br />Mayor: LEONARDO ESCOBAR<br />Teniente: ELISEO VALENCIA<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />ISMAEL CORNEJO<br />MANUEL LOZADA<br /><br />Batallón “Provisional de Lima”:<br />Comandante: OSWALDO PFLUCKER<br />Capitán: JOSE GARCIA<br /><br />REGIMIENTO GUIAS<br />Coronel: JUAN GONZALES<br /><br />BRIGADA DE ARTILLERIA<br />Mayores:<br />JOSE R. DE LA FUENTE<br />GUILLERMO GUERRERO<br />FRANCISCO PASTRANA<br />Capitán: ELOY CABALLERO<br />Tenientes:<br />JOSE G. CACERES<br />NICANOR MALAGA<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />FEDERICO PEZET<br />CARLOS ARANCIBIA<br />ENRIQUE VARELA<br /><br />BATALLA DEL ALTO DE LA ALIANZA 26 MAYO 1880<br />MUERTOS<br />JEMG DEL EJERCITO ALIADO GENERAL BOLIVIANO JUAN JOSE PEREZ<br /><br />EJERCITO PERUANO<br />PRIMERA DIVISION<br />Batallón “Lima”:<br />Mayor: FELICIANO SALGUERO<br /><br />Batallón “Granaderos del Cuzco”:<br />Capitanes:<br />SEBASTIAN VASQUEZ<br />FEDERICO AGUIRRE<br />Tenientes:<br />ISAAC CUADROS<br />NICANOR ALVAREZ<br />ANTOLIN FLORES<br />NICANOR CHAVERA<br /><br />SEGUNDA DIVISION:<br />Comandancia General:<br />Comandante: FELIPE S. CRESPO<br />Capitán: LUIS CHACON<br /><br />Batallón “Zepita”:<br />Comandante: CARLOS LLOSA<br />Capitán: PEDRO SUAREZ<br />Tenientes:<br />TOMAS BERENGEL<br />RONUALDO PALOMINO<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />WASHINGTON LA ROSA<br />JOSE RODRIGUEZ<br /><br />Batallón “Cazadores del Misti”<br />Coronel: SEBASTIAN LUNA<br />Mayor: CLAUDIO IGARZA<br />Capitán: MARIANO VERA<br />Tenientes:<br />EDUARDO Camacho<br />JULIO CARDENAS<br />PEDRO LOPEZ<br /><br />TERCERA DIVISION<br />Comandancia General<br />Mayores:<br />FRANCISCO HEROS<br />ANTONIO SERRUTO<br /><br />Batallón “Arica”<br />Comandante: JULIO MAC LEON<br />Capitán: M. MONJE<br />Teniente: TOMAS SALAS<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />N. ARIAS<br />E. ALCALDE<br />N. GAMARRA<br /><br /><br />Batallón “Pisagua“:<br />Comandante: JOSE LUIS ESPINOZA<br />Mayores:<br />VICENTE ESPINOZA<br />MANUEL MATHEUS<br />Capitanes:<br />FERMIN DALON<br />JOSE VILLENA<br />Tenientes:<br />ISMAEL CUADROS<br />ENRIQUE CHOCANO<br />CARLOS MOOR<br /><br />CUARTA DIVISION<br />Jefe: Coronel: JACINTO MENDOZA<br /><br />Batallón “Huáscar”<br />Coronel: BELISARIO BARRIGA<br />Mayor: JOSE ANTONIO RUEDA<br />Capitanes:<br />MANUEL FERNANDEZ<br />N. SILVA<br />NAZARIO TOLEDO<br />FEDERICO JIMENEZ<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />AURELIO PEREZ<br />EDUARDO MORANCI<br /><br />Batallón “Victoria”<br />Sub Teniente: LUIS AMAT<br /><br />QUINTA DIVISION<br />Comandante General:<br />Comandantes:<br />FEDERICO BARRETO<br />LEONIDAS BARRIOS VALOIS<br /><br />Batallón “Ayacucho”<br />Capitanes:<br />GROCIO PRADO<br />JOSE MANUEL SALAS<br />Teniente: CLAUDIO VELANDO<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />JUAN LOPEZ<br />ELEODORO PAZ SOLDAN<br />LEANDRO MOLINA<br /><br />Batallón “Arequipa”<br />Mayores:<br />ABEL BELLATIN<br />FRANCISCO COLMENARES<br />LEONCIO DELGADO<br />Teniente: ADOLFO GOMEZ<br /><br />SEXTA DIVISION<br />Batallón “Cazadores del Rímac”<br />Coronel: VICTOR FAJARDO<br />Mayor: LUCIANO VELARDE<br />Tenientes:<br />JOSE SOLOGUREN<br />VICENTE OQUENDO<br /><br />DIVISION GENDARMES DE TACNA<br />Columna “Gendarmes”:<br />Comandante: NAPOLEON VIDAL<br /><br />Columna “Agricultores de Para”<br />Capitán: SAMUEL ALCAZAR<br />ARTILLERIA<br />Capitán: ELIAS BODERO<br /><br />CABALLERIA<br />Regimiento “Húsares de Junín”<br />Comandante: LUIS REYNA<br />Mayor: GUILLERMO BYRNE<br />Teniente: JOSE M. PEÑA<br /><br />OTROS<br />Coroneles:<br />FEDERICO CASTILLO<br />W. ESPINOZA<br />Capitanes:<br />ENRIQUE OSMA<br />SAMUEL ALIAGA<br />MANUEL MATOS<br />JOSE MARIA SOTO<br />ANTONIO SERRES<br />Tenientes:<br />MANUEL JERI<br />DOMINGO ARENAS<br />MARIANO ROMERO<br />JOSE FELICIANO SALGUERO<br />O. CARDENAS<br />OTONIEL BYRNE<br />MANUEL FAICO<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />ANTONIO RODRIGUEZ<br />JULIO SEPULVEDA<br />RICARDO PALOMINO<br />MANUEL SOVERO CAMACHO<br />JUAN LOPEZ<br />AURELIO PEREZ<br />JOSE SOTO<br />Cabos:<br />ALBERTO TELLEES Y CASAS<br />JOSE VASQUEZ<br />CARLOS VIDAL<br />ENRIQUE VILLAR<br /><br />EJERCITO BOLIVIANO<br />Jefe: General: CLAUDIO ACOSTA<br /><br />PRIMERA DIVISION<br />Batallón “Alianza Colorados”<br />Comandante: FELIPE REVELO<br />Tenientes:<br />NEREO SANJINES<br />ENRIQUE MOJE<br /><br />Batallón “AROMA”<br />Soldados:<br />JOSE ZEVALLOS<br />ZACARIAS RIVERO<br />MANUEL CARI<br /><br />Batallón “Loa”<br />Teniente: GREGORIO GANDARILLAS<br />Soldados:<br />JUAN ROSALES<br />AGUSTIN EDUARDO<br /><br />SEGUNDA DIVISION<br />Batallón “Sucre Amarillos”<br />Soldados:<br />MANUEL CORRALES<br />BALDOMERO PEDRAZA<br />DEMETRIO MARIACA<br /><br />Batallón “Viedma”<br />Soldados:<br />ANDRES ZEVALLOS<br />ANTONIO BRAVO<br />TOMAS CAMACHO<br /><br />Batallón “Padilla”<br />Capitanes:<br />JULIO ACHA<br />JUAN ZAVALA<br />Tenientes:<br />DELFIN BUITRON<br />JOSE MARIA OVANDO<br />JUSTO PASTOR RIVERA<br /><br /><br />TERCERA DIVISION<br />Batallón “Grau”<br />Soldados:<br />JUAN TEJERINA<br />JULIAN TORRES<br />BASILIO MERIDA<br /><br />Batallón “Tarija”<br />Soldados:<br />NAZARIO ZAMORA<br />VENENCIO MIRANDA<br />JUAN JIMENEZ<br /><br />Batallón “Chorolque”<br />Capitán: BENJAMIN VILLEGAS<br />Tenientes:<br />ALEJANDRO PORCEL<br />MARIANO GRANDI<br /><br />DIVISION VANGUARDIA<br />Batallón ”Murillo”:<br />Sub Teniente: JULIO DUCROCK<br />Sargentos.<br />WERTER RIVERA<br />LIZANDRO ALTUZARRA<br /><br />Regimiento “Libres del Sur”:<br />Capitán: ADOLFO VARGAS<br />Teniente: ANGEL SALGUERO<br /><br />Escuadrón Escolta:<br />Rifleros:<br />PASTOR FLORES<br />GREGORIO GARCIA<br /><br />BATALLA DE ARICA 7 JUNIO 1880<br />Muertos y Heridos<br /><br />JEFE DE LA PLAZA: CORONEL: FRANCISCO BOLOGNESI<br />Capitán: DANIEL CORZO<br />Tenientes:<br />AURELIO CARDENAS<br />PEDRO URETA<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />N, MUNAR<br />CIPRIANO RUIZ<br /><br />SETIMA DIVISION<br />Jefe: Coronel: JOSE JOAQUIN INCLAN<br />JEM Coronel: RICARDO O’DONOVAN<br /><br />Batallón “Granaderos de Tacna”<br />Coronel: JUSTO ARIAS Y ARAGUEZ<br />Mayores:<br />FELIPE ANTONIO ZELA<br />TOMAS CHOCANO<br />JUAN IZUSQUIZA<br />MIGUEL ESPINOZA<br />Capitanes:<br />ORDONER VARGAS<br />PEDRO CORREA<br />FELIPE LEON<br />MANUEL MOYANO<br />Tenientes:<br />VITALIANO BECERRA<br />ESTEBAN GILES<br />ARISTIDES SOLOGUREN<br />ASCENCIO RIVERA<br />MARIANO BENAVIDES<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />NESTROR BIRNE<br />RICARDO TELLEZ<br />LIZARDO ZEVALLOS<br />AURELIO GOMEZ GARCIA<br />JULIO BARRIOS<br />NOE BICOAGA<br />MANUEL TELLEZ<br />MIGUEL ORTIZ<br />CARLOS MURPHI<br />Inspector:<br />MANUEL JENI<br /><br />Batallón “Artesanos de Tacna”:<br />Coronel: MARCELINO VARELA<br />Mayor: LUIS ARMANDO BLONDEL<br />Capitanes:<br />MANUEL LARA<br />PEDRO VIDAURRE<br />OLEGARIO ROSPLIGIOSI<br />MANUEL QUELOPANA<br />Tenientes:<br />FEDERICO BASADRE<br />CLODOMIRO BUSTAMANTE<br />ABEL ZELA<br />JOSE SOTO<br />SEBASTIAN CESPEDES<br />JOSE QUELOPANA<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />ARMANDO BASADRE<br />JUAN ALAY<br />JOSE RODRIGUEZ<br />LEONIDAS ARRIAGA<br /><br />Batallón “Cazadores de Tacna”<br />Comandante: FRANCISCO CORNEJO<br />Mayor: GENARO VIZCARRA<br />Capitán: MIGUEL REVELLO<br />Tenientes:<br />RICARDO BARREDO<br />GUILLERMO SANTANA<br />MANUEL POZO<br />JOSE SOTO<br />ANDRES BELAUNDE<br />RUFINO VARGAS<br />Sub Teniente: ISAIAS MEDINA<br /><br />OCTAVA DIVISION<br />Jefe: Coronel: ALFONSO UGARTE<br />JEM Coronel: MARIANO BUSTAMANTE<br /><br />Batallón “Tarapacá”<br />Comandantes:<br />RAMON ZAVALA<br />BENIGNO CORNEJO<br />Capitán: JUAN GARLAND<br />Tenientes:<br />FEDERICO BERASTAIN<br />SIMON GRADOS<br />PEDRO HELMES<br />ALEJANDRO MONTFOR<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />ELEODORO ZEVALLOS<br />ANIBAL CHAVEZ<br />RAMON OSORIO<br /><br />Batallón “Iquique”<br />Comandante: ROQUE SAENZ PEÑA<br />Mayores:<br />ISIDORO SALAZAR<br />CARLOS ESCOBAR<br />Capitán: DAVID CUELLAS<br />Tenientes:<br />VICENTE ALMONTE<br />MANUEL SILVESTRE ARO<br />ENRIQUE HERNANDEZ<br />JOSE NACARINO<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />ELIAS LOAYZA<br />VICENTE RODO<br />FRANCISCO RODRIGUEZ<br />FEDERICO CASTILLA<br />FEDERICO ALVAREZ<br />MANUEL GARCIA<br />CARLOS MORE<br /><br />BATERIAS DEL MORRO<br />Capitán: JUAN GUILLERMO MORE<br />Mayor: MANUEL MARTINEZ<br />Capitanes:<br />CLETO MARTINEZ<br />ADOLFO KING<br />Tenientes:<br />TOMAS G. OTOYA<br />EMILIO DE LOS RIOS<br />MIGUEL ESPINOZA<br />FRANCISCO RAMIREZ<br />TORIBIO TRELLES<br />ALBERTO CADERONI<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />FRANCISCO ALLAU<br />GUSTAVO MONTERVI<br /><br />BATERIAS DEL NORTE<br />Comandante: JUAN PABLO AYLLO<br />Mayor: MANUEL MARTINEZ<br /><br />BATERIAS DEL ESTE<br />Mayores:<br />FERMIN MACARINO<br />ISMAEL MEZA<br />Capitán: JUAN RAMIREZ<br />Tenientes:<br />NEMESIO BOUNHUMEN<br />ANTONIO MORENO<br />MANUEL SEROJ<br />MANUEL TARY<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />LIZARDO PEDRAJA<br />EUSEBIO NAPURI<br />ENRIQUE ZAPATA<br />MANUEL MOYANO<br />JOSE BELAUNDE<br />Cabo: ALFREDO MALDONADO<br /><br />BATERIAS FLOTANTES<br />Monitor “Manco Capac”<br />Capitán de Fragata: JOSE SANCHEZ LAGOMARSINO<br />Capitán de Corbeta: ROMULO TIZON<br />Tenientes:<br />BERNARDO SMITH<br />JOSE PIZARRO<br />JUAN TABOADA<br />EULOGIO SALDIAS<br />NICANOR ASIN<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />RAMON BUENO<br />DANIEL DURAN<br />Guardia Marina<br />CARLOS LEGUIA<br />CARLOS BARANDIARAN<br />LUIS A. ARCE<br />FELIPE ALCORTA<br />JUAN MULGRUW<br />FRANCISCO ESCURRA<br />Maquinistas:<br />TOMAS COLPUHOUN ANIBAL ALAYZA<br />MANUEL HIDALGO<br />TORIBIO VILLALOBOS<br />ALCIBIADES MALDONADO<br />TOMAS BONAR<br />BENJAMIN ARCE FOLCHS<br />Ayudante:<br />MANUEL SALAS<br />JOSE ZAVALETA<br /><br />LANCHA TORPEDO “ALIANZA”<br />Teniente: MANUEL FERNANDEZ DAVILA<br />Alférez: DAVID FLORES<br />Guardia Marina: JUAN DE MORA<br />Maquinistas:<br />CLODOMIRO GONZALEZ<br />CARLOS CARRANZA<br /><br />CAMPAÑA DE LIMA<br />BATALLA DE “SAN JUAN” 13 ENERO 1881<br />Muertos<br /><br />Comandancia General:<br />Coroneles:<br />JOSE DIAZ<br />JOSE GONZALES<br /><br />Estado Mayor:<br />Coronel: JUAN MANUEL MONTERO ROSAS<br />Comandantes:<br />MAXIMO BENAVIDES<br />CIPRIANO NICANOR ROSAS<br />CIPRIANO NICANOR RIVAS<br />Mayores:<br />JOSE MARIA FRIAS<br />JOSE LUIS ELCOLOBARRUTIA<br />MANUEL MEDRANO SILVA<br />MANUEL MORAN SILVA<br />FEDERICO LA ROSA<br />Capitanes:<br />M. PORTOCARRERO<br />CARLOS GONZALES LARRAÑAGA<br />ANTONIO OLIVERA<br />Teniente: JOSE PORTOCARRERO<br />Sub Teniente: ENRIQUE MORENO<br />Guardia Marina: FEDERICO DE LA ROSA<br />Ayudantes:<br />Comandante: FRANCISCO GARCIA<br />Mayores:<br />JESUS MORALESS<br />JUAN CARTASUSA<br />JUAN CASTILLA<br />Administración:<br />Comandantes:<br />OSCAR DE LA BARRERA<br />JUAN ANTONIO PINTO<br />Teniente: BALTAZAR ZAMBRANO<br />Ambulancia: Practicante: GREGORIO MONTES<br />Ingenieros:<br />Teniente: JUAN MIGUEL BALCAZAR<br />Oficial: PEDRO DUGNE<br /><br />A LA DERECHA<br />I CUERPO DE EJÉRCITO<br />Jefe: SEGUNDA DIVISION EJÉRCITO DEL NORTE<br />Coronel PABLO ARGUEDAS<br /><br /><br />Batallón “Guardia Peruana” No. 1<br />Comandante: MANUEL MARIA SEGUIN<br />Mayor: PEDRO ALCOCER<br />Capitán: JOSE Gabriel TORRES<br />Tenientes:<br />JUAN ANTONIO GARCIA<br />ANTONIO REYES<br />Sub Teniente: MANUEL GARCIA<br />Sargento: JOSE GAMBOA<br />Cabos:<br />JUAN IZAGUIRRE<br />BELIZARIO MORENO<br /><br />Batallón “Tarma” No. 7<br />Coronel: M. MENDIZABAL<br />Mayores:<br />NESTOR BERMUDEZ<br />ADOLFO BERMUIDEZ<br />Capitán: BUENAVENTURA REY<br />Tenientes:<br />ANTONIO BUCKINGHAM<br />ANTONIO CARDENAS<br />JUAN MENDIZABAL<br /><br />Batallón “Callao” No. 9<br />Mayores:<br />JUAN JOSE OCHOA<br />Capitán: ANTONIO AVILES<br />Teniente: MANUEL WAGNER<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />ABELARDO RUBIO<br />JOSE CEFERINO OCHOA<br />PABLO CASTORINO DIAZ<br />Sargentos:<br />JOSE OCHOA<br />MANUEL ALBA<br />PEDRO GRANTHON<br />Cabo: CARLOS CAMACHO<br />Soldado: SIMON SHURITS<br /><br />Batallón “Libres de Trujillo” No. 11<br />Capitanes:<br />MAXIMO ALVARADO<br />JOSE ASCENCIO MORALES<br />MANUEL MORALES COVERO<br />Tenientes:<br />ABELARDO RUBIO<br />LEOPOLDO ARIAS<br />BERNAQRDINO CRUZ<br />MANUEL RUBIO CARRION<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />VICENTE NUÑEZ LARREA<br />FEDERICO UGARTE<br />Soldado:<br />PABLO ALAS<br />MANUEL PAGADOR<br /><br />Batallón “Junín” No. 13<br />Comandante: DANIEL SIMON VELEZ<br />Mayor: MANUEL CASOS<br />Sub Teniente: JOSE MANUEL ROSAS MEDINA<br />Sargento: BELISARIO CARMONA<br /><br />Batallón “Ica” No. 15<br />Comandante: RICARDO MURGA<br />Capitán: JOSE MARIA BENAVIDES<br />Tenientes:<br />MANUEL FEDERICO PAZOS<br />ANTONIO RODRIGUEZ<br /><br />Batallón “Libres de Cajamarca” No. 21<br />Coronel: JOAQUIN BERNAL<br />Comandante: JOSE GAMARRA<br />Mayores:<br />MANUEL GAMARRA<br />ALEJANDRO IGLESIAS<br /><br />ARTILLERIA<br />Comandantes:<br />FRANCISCO MORENO<br />MANUEL ODICIO<br />Mayores:<br />ENRIQUE DELHORME<br />MARIANO CASANOVA<br />DANIEL GALLES<br />RAMON DAGNINO<br />DIEGO MEDINA<br />DANIEL GARCES<br />FERNANDO DE LAVALLE Y PARDO<br />Capitanes:<br />N. ROMANO<br />MANUEL RUBIÑOS<br />VICENTE ESPANTOSO<br />PEDRO ZELAYA<br />ANTONIO OLIVERA<br />MIGUEL RAMIREZ<br />Tenientes:<br />DAVID LEON<br />GABINO SALAZAR<br />MANUEL FUENTES<br />MANUEL ROCAVERO<br />MANUEL VIDAL<br />AUGUSTO BOLOGNESI<br />MANUEL ZELAYA<br />BALTAZAR DEL VALLE<br />JOSE ALBUJAR<br />MAXIMO PIEROLA<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />EDUARDO BRYTOS<br />ALBERTO SEMINARIO CORTEZ<br />ENRIQUE VILLAR<br />JUAN MAXIMILIANO CARRANZA<br />ENRIQUE DEL VALLE<br />JULIO S. MOPRALES<br />Sargentos:<br />ISAIAS OLIVIO Y ROCA<br />ESTEBAN TUESTEN<br />CLODOMIRO ZAMBRANO MOYANO<br />MANUEL FLORES<br />Cabos:<br />LORENZO MORALES<br />SATURNINO MORALES<br />EMILIO ABAD<br />PABLO SANCHEZ<br />MANUEL RAMOS<br />Soldados:<br />MANUEL CASTAÑEDA<br />JOSE MERCEDES REVOREDO<br /><br />CENTRO<br />IV CUERPO DE EJÉRCITO<br />Jefe Primera División Ejercito del Centro<br />Coronel DOMINGO AYARZA<br /><br />Batallón “Lima” No. 61<br />Tenientes:<br />CESAR RODRIGUEZ<br />LIZARDO ALZAMORA<br />Sub Teniente: ELIAS CALMET<br />Cabo: JUAN DAVALOS<br />Soldados:<br />LUIS ZAPATA<br />ANTONIO CAMISARO<br />NICANOR GUERRERO<br /><br />Batallón “Canta” No. 63<br />Mayor: JOSE MARIA VILCHEZ<br />Teniente: MARIANO CAMPOS<br />Sub Teniente: GUADALUPE HUARE<br /><br />Batallón “28 de Julio” No. 65<br />Capitán: AURELIANO BLAKE<br />Soldado: BERNARDINO FARFAN<br /><br />Batallón “Pichincha” No. 73<br />Capitán: ADOLFO GUZMAN<br /><br />Batallón “Piérola” No. 75<br />Coronel: REYNALDO DE VIVANCO<br />Capitanes:<br />FRANCISCO BEJARANO<br />JUAN PABLO BERMUDEZ<br />HERACLIDES CABRERA<br />BERNARDINO ROMERO<br />LORENZO LOZANO<br />MANUEL TOMAS PEREZ<br />Tenientes:<br />RAMON GUERRERO<br />AGUSTIN ORTEGA<br />LORENZO JAUREGUI<br />FRANCISCO VVALLEJOS<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />FRANCISCO BENTACOUR<br />SANTIAGO RODRIGUEZ<br />JUAN HERENCIA ZEVALLOS<br />FELIPE VALLE RIESTRA<br />DANIEL TIMORAN<br />Sargento:<br />JULIO BOUQUET<br />Soldados:<br />MATIAS GOMEZ<br />VIVIANO PAREDES<br />MANUEL ARIAS<br />MANUEL JARAMILLO<br /><br />Batallón “ARICA” No. 79<br />Comandante: JOSE MANUEL SILVA<br />Tenientes:<br />LIZARDO BASURTO<br />JULIO RODRIGUEZ<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />JOSE FAUSTINO FAJARDO<br />MANUEL PALOMINO<br />Sargentos:<br />JOSE MARIA AGUILAR<br />MANUEL MEDRANO<br />Soldado: SIBILINO RUIZ<br /><br />Batallón “Manco Capac” No.81<br />Comandante: ADOLFO MARTINEZ<br />Teniente: BELIZARIO MORENO<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />TORIBIO SEMINARIO CORTEZ<br />SAMUEL BERNALES LEON<br />MANUEL GARCIA<br />MANUEL BARRETO<br /><br /><br />Batallón “Ayacucho” No. 83<br />Coronel: MARIANO PASTOR SEVILLA<br />Mayor: DANIEL MENDOZA<br /><br />A LA IZQUIERDA<br />III CUERPO DE EJÉRCITO<br /><br />Batallón “Piura” No. 67<br />Mayor: IGNACIO SEMINARIO<br />Sub Teniente: JUAN GUERRA<br /><br />Batallón “23 de Diciembre” No. 69<br />Capitanes:<br />JULIO VICTOR AGUIRRE<br />JUAN A. VALENCIA<br />JUSTO NAVEDA<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />LIZARDO BENAVIDES<br />JULIO BELLIDO<br />Cabo: CESAR ESCOBAR<br />Soldados:<br />RAMON CACERES<br />CALIXTO GONZALES<br />ISMAEL ESCOBAR<br /><br />Batallón “Libertad” No. 71<br />Sub Teniente:<br />BLAS OCHOA<br />ELISEO CALMET GOMEZ<br /><br />Batallón “Cazadores de Junín” No. 89<br />Capitán: GERMAN LAPEYRE<br />Teniente: FILIBERTO ROMERO<br />Sub Teniente: ADOLFO VIEIRA<br /><br />Batallón de “Reserva Movilizable” No. 40<br />Soldado: CELSO RODRIGUEZ<br /><br />Columna de la “Guardia Civil”:<br />Inspectores:<br />JOSE GAVINO HIGINIO<br />PEDRO SILVA ARRIAGA<br />ANTONIO JOSE TERRY<br />ENRIQUE VALLEJOS<br />MANUEL OSAMBELA<br />PABLO SANCHEZ<br />ANDRES DOMINGUEZ<br />ANTONIO FERREYROS<br />Teniente: MARCOS DAVILA<br />Sargentos:<br />POLICARPO RIVERA<br />SABINO ARANDA<br /><br />CABALLERIA<br />Comandantes:<br />BELISARIO GRADOS<br />LORENZO RONDON<br />AUGUSTO BARRENECHEA<br />Capitán: ESTANISLAO GOMEZ FERNANDINI<br />Sub Teniente: ALEJANDRO TIRADO<br /><br />OTROS<br />Coronel: MANUEL CANO<br />Comandante: BALTAZAR GRADOS<br />Mayor: NICANOR MENDOZA<br />Capitanes:<br />MANUEL GALINDO<br />JUAN MONTOYA<br />GABRIEL TORRES<br />Tenientes:<br />MANUEL BEZADA<br />SEBASTIAN CLAVERIA<br />Sub Teniente: MARIANO CARRANZA<br />Sargento: JOSE VILLARAN<br />Combatientes:<br />JOSE ALBUJAR<br />FRANCISCO ARANA<br />JUAN BARRERA<br />DIONICIO CAMPOS<br />MANUEL CARBAJAL<br />CARLOS GIL<br />GREGORIO MIRANDA<br />NEMESIO NORIEGA<br />MANUEL VALLEJO<br />REYNALDO VIVANCO<br /><br />BATALLA DE SAN JUAN 13 DE ENERO 1881<br />RESERVA<br />II CUERPO DE EJÉRCITO<br />Batallón “9 de Diciembre” No. 5<br />Sargento: MAXIMO BENAVIDES<br /><br />Batallón “Huánuco” No. 17<br />Capitán: MANUEL ELISEO ASANZA<br />Teniente: LEOPOLDO ZAMBRANO<br />Soldado: ISIDRO SALAZAR<br /><br />Batallón “Paucarpata” No. 19<br />Coronel: JOSE MANUEL CHIARIARSE<br />Mayores:<br />CESAR RAMIREZ FRANCIA<br />JUAN REGAL<br />Sub Teniente:<br />JULIO GRIAL<br />Sargento: ENRIQUE RAMOS<br />Cabos:<br />REYNALDO AZAÑEDO OBREGON<br />MANUEL RAMOS<br />MANUEL LOBOS<br />MANUEL MARIN PEÑA<br />Soldados:<br />FELIPE SILVA<br />FRANCISCO GIL<br />MANUEL LEON<br /><br />Batallón ”Jauja“ No. 23<br />Coronel: JULIAN ARIAS Y ARAGUEZ<br />Comandante: NICOLAS CALDERON<br />Mayor: JUAN L. RODRIGUEZ<br />Capitán: JUAN PEÑA<br />Sargento: PEDRO VILLALOBOS<br /><br />Batallón “Ancash” No. 25<br />Teniente: JOSE MARIA CORONEL ZEGARRA<br /><br />Batallón “Zuavos o Zepita” No. 29<br />Capitán: JUAN MENDIZABAL<br />Tenientes:<br />VICENTE URRETI<br />MANUEL J. ZEVALLOS<br />MARIANO ALVARADO OBREGON<br />ENRIQUYE MULLER<br />Sargentos:<br />IDELFONSO FUENTES<br />FORTUNATO LEON<br />BUENAVENTURA UBILLUS<br />DOMINGO ESCOBEDO<br />DAVID ORTEGA<br />Cabos: JOSE LUIS BAUTISTA<br />BELISARIO LEON<br />JOSE VILLALBA<br />Soldados:<br />JUAN DE DIOS BEDOYA<br />N. ESCURRA<br />RAMON GUERRERO<br />CARMEN SALINAS<br />LIZARDO CHOZA MALDONADO<br />Porta Estandarte:<br />Teniente: JOSE ANDRES TORRES PAZ<br /><br />OTROS<br />Mayores:<br />JUAN CARRILLO<br />RICARDO COLMENARES<br />JUAN VELEZ<br />Capitanes:<br />JOSE MARIA BUSTAMANTE<br />JOAQUIN OTOYA RAMIREZ<br />HERNANDO VALLE ARIAS<br />JOSE E. PACHECO<br />PEDRO OLIVEIRA<br />TOMAS SANCHEZ<br />ANTONIO BARBARAN<br />Tenientes:<br />ALBERTO DEL CAMPO<br />JOSE ITURREGUI<br />AGUSTIN LANGUE<br />GUILLERMO VARGAS<br />MANUEL TELAYA<br />MANUEL PORTOCARRERO<br />JOSE ROCA<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />JOSE MANUEL CASTILLO<br />GERMAN AMEZAGA<br />ADRIAN LECHU<br />PEDRO BRACHO<br />PEDRO CHAVARRI<br />ERNESTO DIBARBU<br />ANTONIO SALAS<br />AQUILINO TERAN<br />ENRIQUE VILLAR<br />Sargentos:<br />ROMAN BALAREZO ZAPATA<br />NICANOR HERNANDEZ<br />Combatientes:<br />NICOLAS DEL AGUILA<br />BASILIO DEL AGUILA<br />ESTEBAN AGUILA RENGIFO<br />JUAN JOSE ALVAREZ<br />DIONICIO ANGULO<br />SAMUEL BARBARAN VELA<br />HIGINIO CARO<br />MANUEL CARO<br />MAMUEL CARRERA<br />FACTOR ANGULO<br />CARMELO ANGULO<br />DOMINGO AREVALO<br />FRANCISCO AREVALO<br />JUAN AREVALO<br />LIBERATO AREVALO<br />MATIAS CORAL<br />SATURNINO CHUMBE<br />MANUEL CHUMBE<br />ILDEFONSO DAVILA<br />ANDRES EGAZ<br />FRANCISCO ESTRELLA<br />BELISARIO FLORES<br />EGIDIO FRANCO<br />BENJAMIN GOMEZ<br />JOSE GOMEZ PEREZ<br />TEODORO GUERRA<br />JOSE CRUZ GUERRA<br />MANUEL LOPEZ<br />RAYMUNDO LOPEZ<br />MANUEL LOZANO<br />JUAN GUALBERETO MACEDO<br />TOMAS MEJIA<br />CARMEN MELENDEZ<br />MARECELINO MENDOZA<br />PASION MESA<br />MIGUEL MONCADA<br />DAVID MONCADA<br />CARMELO MORENO<br />ANTONIO MORI<br />JUAN MUÑOZ<br />ESCOLASTICO MURRIETA<br />JUAN MURRIETA<br />ERNESTO NORIEGA<br />ISAAC NORIEGA<br />MARCELINO NUÑEZ<br />PASION OCHOA<br />TORIBIO OCHOA<br />NINO OLORTEGUI<br />FRANCISCO DE PAULA PEÑA<br />SANTIAGO POMA<br />FAUSTINO PERES<br />VIVIANO PERES<br />ANTONIO PERES<br />PEDRO PESEA<br />JOSE DEL CARMEN PINEDO<br />FROILAN PORTOCARRERO<br />PABLO RAMIREZ<br />NICOLAS REATEGUI<br />PASCUAL REATEGUI<br />JOSE MANUEL REBOREDO<br />AURELIO RENGIFO<br />FERNANDO RENGIFO<br />AVELINO RENGIFO<br />SILVERIO RENGIFO<br />RUPERTO RIOS RUIZ<br />TORIBIO RIOS<br />JOSE DEL CARMEN RODRIGUEZ<br />SANTIAGO RODRIGUEZ Y DENCH<br />BONIFACIO RODRIGUEZ<br />ANSELMO ROJAS<br />MANUEL ROJAS<br />VENTURA ROJAS<br />PEDRO RUIZ<br />JUAN DE DIOS RUIZ<br />JUAN RUIZ M.<br />ABRAHAM SALDAÑA<br />ESPIRITU SALINAS<br />FERNANDO SANCHEZ<br />PASION SANCHEZ<br />JUAN SANDOVAL MATA<br />EUGENIO SILVA<br />JORGE SOLANO<br />MATEO SOSA<br />JUAN VARELA<br />JUAN JOSE VARGAS<br />LUIS VARGAS<br />JESUS VASQUEZ<br />ELIAS VASQUEZ PEREZ<br />MIGUEL VELASQUEZ LOPEZ<br />EDUARDO VELA<br />SANTIAGO VELA<br />BENJAMIN VILLALOBOS SAMANIEGO<br />ENRIQUE VILLAR<br />FRANCISCO VILLASERLO<br />ENRIQUE VILLEGAS RUEDA<br /><br /><br />BATALLA DE MIRAFLORES 15 ENERO 1881<br />Muertos<br />ESTADO MAYOR.<br />Coroneles:<br />MAXIMO ISAAC ABRIL<br />MARIANO ARRIS<br />Comandantes:<br />JUAN MANUEL VERASTIAGA<br />MAXIMO BENAVIDES<br />N. VILLAGARCIA<br />Ayudantes:<br />Comandante: HIPOLITO DE LA MELENA<br />Capitanes: FRANCISCO DE PAULA UGARRIZA<br />MAXIMIANO VELARDE<br />Tenientes:<br />JUAN VELARDE CONCHA<br />DAVID MORENO<br />Sargento: MANUEL RUIZ MORENO<br />Ingeniero: BARTOLOME TRUJILLO<br />Ambulancia:<br />GREGORIO INFANTAS FONSECA<br />BENJAMIN FAJARDO Y OLIVA<br />JOSE RAMON DE LOS HEROS<br />Administración:<br />Tenientes:<br />ENRIQUE DELUCCI<br />ENRIQUE GUIMARAES<br />FRANCISCO JAVIER FERNANDEZ<br />JUAN ANDRADE<br />JUAN DE LA FUENTE<br />VENANCIO AVILA<br /><br />SECTOR CACERES<br />DIVISION NORIEGA<br />Batallón “Guarnición de Marina”<br />Capitán de Navío: JUAN FANNING<br />Mayores:<br />MANUEL PINO DIAZ<br />AUGUSTO UGARTE<br />Capitanes;<br />MANUEL ASANZA<br />MANUEL PINO MORENO<br />Tenientes:<br />RICARDO ALVARADO<br />MANUEL BOZANO<br />AURELIO HURTADO Y HAZA<br />MOISES PATRON<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />FRANCISCO HIGGINSON<br />Sargento: IDELFONSO FUENTES<br />Soldados:<br />MANUEL PAREDES<br />GREGORIO VINCES<br />TRANQUILINO VELARDE<br />JUAN EZEQUIEL COCKBRUON<br /><br />Batallón GUARDIA CHALACA<br />Capitán de Fragata: CARLOS ARRIETA<br />Capitanes:<br />MANUEL CANTAS<br />VICENTE ESPANTOSO<br />Teniente: MANUEL SICTO GELOS<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />VICENTE MARIZALDE<br />JOSE CLOTALDO PLO<br />MANUEL ALCEDO<br />SIXTO DEUSTUA<br />MANUEL GERMAN POBLET<br />Sargentos:<br />PEDRO CABALLERO<br />ANTONIO DE LA HAZA<br />ANIBAL ESTRADA<br />ANTONIO RUIZ<br />Cabos:<br />JOSE DOLORES VILLA<br />SANTIAGO FIGUEROA<br />FRANCISCO MUÑOZ<br />IGNAQCIO ORELLANA<br />SANTIAGO PORTAL<br />RAFAEL RUIZ<br />Soldados:<br />FEDERICO ALVARO<br />JOSE ARREDONDO<br />PEDRO BACHO<br />LAUREANO CORREA<br />JUAN CARRILLO<br />RAMON CORTEZ<br />TORIBIO CUBILLAS<br />MIGUEL DIAZ<br />JULIO ESTRADA<br />JUSTO FLORES<br />NICOLAS FONSECA<br />JORGE FRENCH<br />JOAQUIN GONZALES<br />JUAN GRILLO<br />SAMUEL ALEGRIA<br />JUAN GORDILLO<br />JUAN LANDAVERI<br />CESAR IUND<br />ANDRES MADUEÑO<br />MANUEL MANALLA<br />FRANCISCO MELLADO<br />MANUEL MOLERO<br />ANSELMO MONTES<br />MARTIN OLAYA<br />JUAN OLMOS<br />MANUEL PAREJAS<br />TOMAS PERLA<br />JUAN F. PEREZ<br />EDILBERTO PONCE DE LEON<br />MIGUEL REYES<br />ZENON RIVERA<br />ATANACIO SALCEDO<br />GUSTAVO ADOLFO SANTILLANA<br />ISAAC SANTILLANA<br />CLODOMIRO SOTELO<br />MIGUEL TRASMONTES<br />AGUSTIN UGARTE<br />MANUEL VASQUEZ<br />OCTAVIO VASQUEZ<br />JUAN VILLANUEVA<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Bomberos<br />CAIDOS EN DEFENSA DE LA PATRIA<br /> APELLIDOS Y NOMBRES COMPAÑÍA FECHA INMOLADO EN<br />1 Alarco Espinoza, Antonio Lima Nº 4 02/05/1866 Combate del 2 de Mayo<br />2 Ugarte Y Moscoso, Manuel S. Lima Nº 4 25/05/1880 Rada del Callao<br />3 Placencia, Ernesto Cosmopolita Nº 11 02/06/1880 Batalla del Alto de la Alianza<br />4 King Loane, Adolfo Martín Unión Chalaca Nº 1 07/06/1880 Batalla de Arica<br />5 Torres, Gabriel (Fundador) Lima Nº 4 13/01/1881 Batalla de San Juan<br />6 Ayarza, Domingo Garibaldi Nº 6 13/01/1881 Batalla de San Juan<br />7 Bargna, Felipe Garibaldi Nº 6 13/01/1881 El saqueo de Chorrillos<br /><br />8 Chiappe, Lucas Garibaldi Nº 6 13/01/1881 El saqueo de Chorrillos<br /><br />9 Cipillini. Ángel Garibaldi Nº 6 13/01/1881 El saqueo de Chorrillos<br /><br />10 Descalzi, Ángel Garibaldi Nº 6 13/01/1881 El saqueo de Chorrillos<br /><br />11 Leonardo Juan Bautista Garibaldi Nº 6 13/01/1881 El saqueo de Chorrillos<br /><br />12 Marzano, Pablo Garibaldi Nº 6 13/01/1881 El saqueo de Chorrillos<br /><br />13 Nerini, Enrique Garibaldi Nº 6 13/01/1881 El saqueo de Chorrillos<br /><br />14 Ognio, Juan Garibaldi Nº 6 13/01/1881 El saqueo de Chorrillos<br /><br />15 Orengo, José Garibaldi Nº 6 13/01/1881 El saqueo de Chorrillos<br /><br />16 Pauli, Juan Garibaldi Nº 6 13/01/1881 El saqueo de Chorrillos<br /><br />17 Risso, Pablo Garibaldi Nº 6 13/01/1881 El saqueo de Chorrillos<br /><br />18 Strana, Lorenzo Garibaldi Nº 6 13/01/1881 El saqueo de Chorrillos<br /><br />19 Valentini, Egidio Garibaldi Nº 6 13/01/1881 El saqueo de Chorrillos<br /><br />20 Aguirre, Julio Salvadora Lima Nº 10 13/01/1881 Batalla de San Juan<br />21 Carbajal, Manuel A. Salvadora Lima Nº 10 13/01/1881 Batalla de San Juan<br />22 Fajardo, Jesús P. Salvadora Lima Nº 10 13/01/1881 Batalla de San Juan<br />23 De la Cuba, Nicasio Cosmopolita Nº 11 13/01/1881 Batalla de San Juan<br />24 Braccio, Pedro Unión Chalaca Nº 1 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />25 Caballero, Pedro Unión Chalaca Nº 1 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />26 Cauto, Miguel Unión Chalaca Nº 1 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />27 Estrada, Justo A. Unión Chalaca Nº 1 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />28 Grillo, Juan Aquilino Unión Chalaca Nº 1 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />29 Herrada, Miguel Unión Chalaca Nº 1 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />30 Higginson, Guillermo Unión Chalaca Nº 1 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />31 Lund, César Unión Chalaca Nº 1 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />32 Muñoz, Francisco Unión Chalaca Nº 1 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />33 Olmos, Juan Unión Chalaca Nº 1 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />34 Orellana, Ignacio Unión Chalaca Nº 1 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />35 Pardo De Figueroa, Santiago Unión Chalaca Nº 1 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />36 Paulet, Germán Unión Chalaca Nº 1 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />37 Rivera, Zenón Unión Chalaca Nº 1 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />38 Villanueva, Juan Unión Chalaca Nº 1 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />39 Barrón, Enrique Lima Nº 4 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />40 Del Campo, Enrique F. Lima Nº 4 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />41 Paz Soldán, Eleodoro Lima Nº 4 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />42 Rellis, Juan Lima Nº 4 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />43 Richardson, Carlos Lima Nº 4 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />44 Rioja, José Lima Nº 4 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />45 Sáenz, Agustín Lima Nº 4 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />46 Villarán, Samuel Lima Nº 4 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />47 Geloz, Manuel S. Salvadora Callao Nº 9 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />48 Barrionuevo, Manuel Salvadora Lima Nº 10 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />49 Del Campo, Enrique Salvadora Lima Nº 10 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />50 Del Pino, Marcelo Salvadora Lima Nº 10 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />51 Morales, Tomás L. Salvadora Lima Nº 10 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />52 O'Hara, Santiago Salvadora Lima Nº 10 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />53 Panizo, Vicente Salvadora Lima Nº 10 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />54 Portocarrero, Daniel Salvadora Lima Nº 10 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />55 Rivera, Belisario Salvadora Lima Nº 10 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />56 Sagales, Ismael Salvadora Lima Nº 10 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />57 Alfaro, Juan Cosmopolita Nº 11 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />58 Cantuarias, Arturo Cosmopolita Nº 11 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />59 Castillo, Emilio Cosmopolita Nº 11 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />60 De tena, Emilio Cosmopolita Nº 11 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />61 Moreno, Gerardo Cosmopolita Nº 11 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />62 Ortega, Enrique Cosmopolita Nº 11 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />63 Pinoleti, Ismael Cosmopolita Nº 11 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />64 Velarde Maximiliano Cosmopolita Nº 11 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />65 Velarde, Tranquilino Cosmopolita Nº 11 15/01/1881 Batalla de Miraflores<br />66 Lange, Augusto Victoria Nº 8 16/01/1881 Guardia Urbana calle "La Pelota"<br />67 Sotomayor, José A. Salvadora Lima Nº 10 10/07/1883 Batalla de Huamachuco<br />68 Távara Renovales, Santiago Agustín Salvadora Callao Nº 9 22/08/1897 Sobreviviente del Combate de Angamos<br />69 Giraldo Vega, Lorenzo Salvadora Callao Nº 9 03/10/1948 Revolución Civil<br />70 Upiachigua Cárdenas, Julio La Punta Nº 34 03/10/1948 Revolución Civil<br /><br />Batallon “Guardia Peruana”.<br />Comandante: CARLOS RICHARDSON<br />Capitanes:<br />FELIX FRANCISCO GIL<br />NUMA GENARO LLONA<br />Tenientes:<br />JUAN ARANA<br />OBDULIO FERREYRA<br />AUGUSTO HURTADO<br />VICENTE HURTADO<br />FRANCISCO MORALES<br />Cabo: JOSE NAUPARE<br />Soldado: MANUEL VIDAL<br /><br />Batallón “Callao”<br />Sargentos:<br />JULIO ALCAZAR<br />VICTOR BALCAZAR<br />Cabo: MANUEL RISCO<br />Soldados:<br />ALFREDO BOCANEGRA<br />GRIMALDO CHOZA<br />NATALIO HERRERA<br />WENCESLAO ROMERO<br /><br />Batallón “CANTA”<br />Capitán: BRAULIO SUAREZ BANDINI<br />Soldado: ISIDRO POMAR<br /><br />Batallón “28 de Julio”<br />Sargento: ANIBAL ESTRADA<br /><br />Batallón “Trujillo”<br />Sub Teniente: ARTURO SUAREZ<br />Soldado: CARLOS ALCORTA<br /><br />Batallón “Jauja”<br />Teniente: FELIPE SANTIAGO MURO<br /><br />DIVISION ZEVALLOS<br />Batallón “Concepción”<br />Sub Teniente: FEDERICO MONASTERIO<br /><br />Batallón “Paucarpata”<br />Soldados:<br />MAXIMILIANO BENITES NARANJO<br />BENIGNO REYES DURAND<br /><br />Reducto No. 1<br />Batallón de Reserva No. 2<br />Capitán: MANUEL VILLARAN<br />Tenientes:<br />HERMILIO FERNANDEZ<br />FERNANDO TERAN<br />JUAN VELARDE Y SANCHEZ<br />Sub Teniente: DANIEL MORENO<br />Cabo: ISMAEL PIÑATELLI<br />Soldados:<br />FRANCISCO MINDREAU<br />JOSE RUFINO TORRES<br />LUIS SEGUNDO TERAN<br />WENCESLAO CABREJOS<br />ENRIQUE LUIS BARRON<br />JOSE JOAQUIN ESCOBAR<br />PEDRO LUIS FALUCCI<br />MANUEL JOSE MALARIN<br />MARTIN MARTINEZ<br />ENRIQUE OLIVA FRANCISCO SEGUIN<br />ANTONIO VELASQUEZ<br /><br />REDUCTO No. 2<br />Batallón de Reserva No. 4<br />Coronel: MANUEL MARIA GOMEZ<br />Coronel: MANUEL MARIA GOMEZ<br />Mayor: JOSE OSORES<br />Capitanes:<br />MANUEL ARELLANO BARBOZA<br />JUAN BERMUDEZ<br />SATURNINO DEL CASTILLO<br />Tenientes:<br />MOISES PATRON<br />MANUEL PINO<br />GUILLERMO LEON<br />MANUEL CAVENECIA<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />MAXIMO GARCIA CALDSERON<br />GERARDO MORENO<br />JOSE SOTO<br />Sargentos:<br />JOSE MANUEL BARRIONUEVO<br />DANIEL PORTOCARRERO<br />GERMAN CARRASCO<br />Cabo: EMILIO CAVENECIA<br />Soldados:<br />FELIX OLCAY<br />MANUEL RAMOS HERRERA<br />MANUEL SANCHEZ<br />ANTONIO ASPILLAGA<br />MANUEL CABALLERO<br />JOSE GONZALEZ<br />ZENON RIVERA<br />JUAN DIONISIO RIVERA<br />JOSE MARIA SEGUIN<br />MANUEL SIXTO PATRON<br />CARLOS PIÑATELLI<br />JOSE RODRIGUEZ<br />DEMETRIO RUIZ<br />MANUEL HARRIS<br />RICARDO OLMEDO<br />CARLOS L. RICHARDSON<br /><br />REDUCTO No.3<br />BATALLON DE RESERVA No. 6<br />Coronel: NARCISO DE LA COLINA RUBI<br />Comandantes:<br />NATALIO SANCHEZ<br />ENRIQUE DEL CAMPO<br />Mayor: REINALDO DEL CAMPO<br />Capitanes:<br />JUAN PABLO BERMUDEZ<br />ADOLFO DE LA JARA BERMUDEZ<br />Tenientes:<br />EMILIO BERMUDEZ<br />MANUEL NEMESIO REYES<br />LUIS DE LA JARA BERMUDEZ<br />MANUEL GUMERCINDO IBERICO<br />JULIO CALERO<br />MANUEL FRANCO<br />TEODORO GARRIDO LECCA<br />EDUARDO GALLO<br />Sub Teniente: MANUEL DAGNINO<br />Sargentos:<br />LEONIDAS LASERRE PALOMINO<br />SAMUEL BERNARDO MARQUEZ<br />ROBERTO GARCIA<br />Cabos:<br />JOSE ASTETE<br />ULDARICO CABEZAS<br />EDUARDO CADENBACK<br />MARIANO ARREDONDO<br />FEDERICO MAYORGA<br />TEODORO CARDENAS<br />MANUEL IRIGOYEN<br />JUAN CANCIO MONTEROLA<br />Soldados:<br />MANUEL PALOMINO OSORES<br />CARLOS RODRIGUEZ<br />MANUEL SANCHEZ PAJUELO<br />PEDRO SANCHEZ<br />MANUEL VILLANUEVA<br />GREGORIO ZEGARRA<br />EULOGIO CABADA<br />JOSE HERNANDO<br />JOSE N. IBERICO<br />JOSE HERRERA<br />EDUARDO EZCURRA<br />JOSE ENRIQUE DEL CAMPO<br />JOSE ORMEÑO M. REYES VELANZUELA<br />CLEMENTE SOLIS<br />JUAN VILLANUEVA<br />MANUEL ARANA<br />BARTOLOME BUSTAMANTE<br />MANUEL ELCOROBARRUTIA<br />MANUEL CACERES<br />MANUEL COVARRUBIA<br />JOSE FAJARDO<br />JOSE MARIN<br />ADOLFO CAVERO<br />ARTURO CESPEDES<br />ADOLFO CACERES<br />MANUEL BONILLA<br />JOSE PEREZ<br />JUAN DE LA FUENTE<br />RAMON DE LOS HEROS<br />EDUARDO ESENORA<br />EDUARDO VALLE<br />ANDRES PONCE<br />PEDRO NIETO<br />EDILBERTO LLANOS<br />MANUEL ARREDONDO<br />MANUEL ARIAS<br /><br /><br /><br />SECTOR SUAREZ<br />DIVISON CANEVARO<br />Batallón “Huánuco”<br />Sargentos:<br />DIDEMO GILES<br />ADRIAN SARA<br />RAFAEL VALER<br />WENCESLAO ZAVALA<br />Cabo: ROSENDO LEDER<br />Soldados:<br />N. AZALDEGUI<br />FRANCISCO CASTILLO<br />DIONICIO GILES<br /><br />Batallón “Ica”<br />Sargento: JOSE RUIZ<br /><br />Batallón “Junín”:<br />Teniente: EDUARDO RICHARDSON<br /><br />DIVISION IGLESIAS<br />Batallón “Manco Capac”<br />Soldado: ANTONIO CONDE<br /><br />Reducto No. 4<br />Batallón de Reserva No. 8<br />Capitan: JUAN ALFARO<br />Sargentos:<br />GERMAN CARRASCO<br />DANIEL PORTOCARRERO<br />Cabos:<br />VICENTE IANIO<br />JOSE CONTRERAS<br />GERMAN ZICHA<br />Soldados:<br />EMILIO SANDOVAL<br />JOSE MANUEL VALERO<br />PEDRO GONZALEZ MUQUI<br />PEDRO GONZALES ABREGU<br />JUAN HERRAN<br />DANIEL MARTINEZ<br />ANDRES GUZMAN<br />TOMAS GUZMAN<br />AMBROCIO DE LOS HEROS<br /><br />SECTOR PASTOR DAVILA<br />Jefe Tercera División Ejercito del Norte<br />Coronel: BUENAVENTURA AGUIRRE<br /><br />Batallón “Libres de Cajamarca”<br />Mayor: JOSE LUCIO MALDONADO<br />Capitanes:<br />JOSE DEL CARMEN BERNAL<br />SAMUEL VILLARAN<br />Sub Teniente: julio i. bellido<br />Soldado: MANUEL CORTEZ<br /><br />Batallón “23 de Diciembre”<br />Mayor: NICOLAS CALDERON<br /><br />Batallón “Unión”<br />Teniente: GREGORIO BALAREZO<br /><br />OTROS<br />Columna Exploradores<br />Comandante: JUAN DEL CARMEN VERASTEGUIO<br /><br />Brigada Morochucos<br />Comandante: MANUEL MIOTA<br /><br />Gendarmes a Caballo<br />Capitán: MANUEL S. MORALES<br /><br />ARTILLERIA<br />Mayores:<br />MARIANO ODICIO<br />MARIANO PORTOCARRERO<br />Capitanes:<br />BALTAZAR VALLE<br />ENRIQUE BOLOGNESI<br /><br />Batallón Ayacucho<br />Capitanes:<br />FELIPE GIL<br />ARMANDO CASTAÑEDA<br /><br />Batallón Ancash<br />Teniente: PEDRO BARRETO<br />Batallón Arica<br />Sub Teniente: JOSE MANUEL PALOMINO<br /><br />Batallón Zepita<br />Mayor: BENITO FONSECA<br />Capitán: JOSE ANTONIO CARRERA<br /><br />Batallón Huacho<br />Soldado: ANGEL CASTILLO<br /><br />Batallón Mirave<br />Sargento: N. BALAREZO<br /><br />Batallón Tarma<br />Mayor: JUAN CASTILLA COLICHON<br />Sargento: SANTIAGO CAMPANO<br /><br />Batallón Piérola<br />Teniente: ENRIQUE LAPEYRE<br /><br />Batallón Camaleros<br />Cabo: FELIPE PALMA<br />Soldado: JOSE GENERO SANCHEZ<br /><br />Batallón Guardia Civil<br />Inspectores:<br />EDILBERTO ANDRACA<br />MANUEL BOZANO<br />BARTOLOME BUSTAMANTE<br />ARTURO CESPEDES<br />MANUEL DURAN<br />JUAN MANUEL IRRIBARREN<br />FRANCISCO OLIVERA<br />JOSE PEREZ<br />JOSE RAMON RUIZ<br />MANUEL MARIANO RAMOS<br />JULIO RODAVERO<br />ALEJANDRO RODAVERO<br />MANUEL REYES<br />EDUARDO SANCHEZ<br />MELITON SALCEDO<br />CLODOMIRO SILVA<br />SOSE SILVA<br />LUIS TERON<br />JOSE MANUEL VALERA<br />CECILIO VELASQUEZ<br />Teniente: JOSE NEYRA<br />Guardias:<br />SANTOS LEIVA<br />EUSEBIO MEDINA<br />LUIS VALLADARES<br /><br />Cuerpo de Tipógrafos<br />NAZARIO ALVAREZ<br />BENIGNO ANTEZANA<br />DANIEL AYALA<br />JOSE N. BANDINI<br />BARTOLOME BUSTAMANTE<br />NICOLAS CAMACHO<br />ANDRES CARREÑO<br />N. CASANOVA<br />JOSE F. CAVENECIA<br />ISAAC CAVENECIA<br />MIGUEL DIAZ<br />CIRILO EFFIO<br />JOSE FAJARDO<br />NARCISO FLORES<br />ROBERTO GARCIA<br />FEDERICO GONZALEZ<br />MATIAS GONZALEZ<br />URBANO GUARDAMINO<br />ENRIQUE LEMBECKE<br />FRANCISCO VELASQUEZ<br />JULIAN VILLAFUERTE<br />NICANOR GUERRERO<br />DANIEL GUEVARA<br />PEDRO HEVIA<br />EUGENIO LAZO<br />LUIS LEVANO<br />MANUEL LIRA<br />FEDERICO MAYORGA<br />AGAPITO MESINAS<br />MANUEL MORALES<br />ESTEBAN MORENO<br />SANTIAGO O’HARA<br />FULGENCIO ORMEÑO<br />JOSE FELIX PAREDES<br />BELISARIO RIVERA<br />MANUEL SANCHEZ PAJUELO<br />PABLO SERRA<br />JOSE SERRANO<br />RICARDO SIERRA<br />IGNACIO SOROGASTUA<br />ANTONIO TORRES<br />VICENTE URRESTI<br />JUAN VANDICK<br /><br />EJERCITO PERUANO OTRAS UNIDADES<br />Coroneles:<br />CIPRIANO LLANOS<br />JOSE A. LOPEZ<br />Mayor: J, M. LA FERMOSA<br />Capitanes:<br />JOSE COLMA<br />CESAR FIGUEROA TOLEDO<br />LEOPOLDO LAZO<br />JOSE LOPEZ<br />Tenientes:<br />JOSE NEYRA<br />DOMINGO ALVAREZ<br />DANIEL ARRIZ<br />JUAN BERMUDEZ<br />BELISARIO CARRILLO<br />JUAN FUENTES<br />MANUEL GARCIA<br />LEPOLDO MEZA<br />ANGEL MORALES<br />VICENTE PANIZO<br />N, SANTA GADEA Y BAMBAREN<br />MARCOS TOLEDO<br />ANGEL VALENZUELA<br /><br />JEFES HERIDOS EN LA DEFENSA DE LIMA<br />Generales:<br />RAMON VARGAS MACHUCA<br />ANDRES SEGURA<br />PEDRO SILVA<br />Coroneles:<br />ANDRES AVELINO CACERES<br />CESAR CANEVARO<br />CARLOS PIEROLA<br />JUSTINIANO BORGOÑO<br />PEDRO MÁS<br />JOAQUIN BERNAL<br />MANUEL PAJARES<br />ISAAC RECAVARREN<br />OSWALDO FLUCKER<br />FRANCISCO LA ROSA<br />ANDRES SUAREZ<br />Mayores:<br />JOSE ANTONIO SARRIO<br />JOSE M. HERMOSA<br />MANUEL ARCE DE LA OLIVA<br /><br />CAMPAÑA DE LA BREÑA<br />Muertos y Heridos<br />COMBATE DE SANGRAR 26 JUNIO 1881<br />Alférez: CLIMACO FALCON<br />Soldados:<br />PRAXEDES PAZ<br />CLEMENTE IZAGUIRRE<br />JOSE MERCEDES VALEZ IGREDA<br />JOSE DOROTEO MOLINA<br /><br /><br />COMBATE DE PUCARA 5 FEBRERO 1882<br />Comandante: AMBROSIO NAVARRO<br />Capitanes:<br />ABRHAM BALLENAS<br />JOSE MARIA ECHENIQUE<br />Tenientes: MANUEL MONTENEGRO<br />FEDERICO MORALES<br />Sub Tenientes;<br />DEMETRIO MERCADO<br />MANUEL BENDEZU<br />JOSE MARIA LOPEZ<br />PEDRO E. MUÑIZ<br />RUPERTO GUERRA<br />MANUEL DOMINGUEZ<br /><br />COMBATE DE SIERRAIUME 2 MARZO 1882<br />Montoneros:<br />MARCELINO ALVAREZ<br />LORENZO BALDEON<br />MELCHOR CARDENAS<br />NORBERTO CORDOVA<br />N. PACHAS ALIAGA<br />GUILLERMO TORPOCO<br /><br />COMBATE DE SICAYA 19 ABRIL 1882<br />Montonero: Joaquín Ávila de lindo<br /><br />BATALLA DE CHUPACA CAFATO 19 ABRIL 1882<br />MOLINOSPATA<br />Montoneros:<br />PATRICIO REYES<br />PABLO RUTTI<br />MANUEL ZURUCHASQUI<br />LUIS SOCOALAYA<br />SANTOS APOLAYA<br />BERNANRDO LAZO<br /><br />LLACUAZ<br />Montoneros:<br />VALENTIN MELGAR<br />ROSA PEREZ<br /><br />HUAMAPATA<br />Montoneros:<br />ASCENCIO SOALAYA<br />ESTANISLAO ORELLANA<br /><br />PLAZA PRINCIPAL<br />Montoneros:<br />FELIPE ESPONDA<br />BASILIO JIMENEZ<br />HIGIDIO CANGALAYA<br />N. PAREDES<br />CAYETANO BUSTOS<br />SEBASTIAN CERRON<br />EUSEBIO IBARRA<br />ANTONIO ALONSO<br />BERNARDO GALVAN<br />JOSE IBARRA<br />MANUEL MELGAR<br />HERMENEGILDO ROJAS<br />JACINTO SALVATIERRA<br /><br /><br />MILOALMA – YAUYO Y PICHINCHA<br />Montoneros:<br />FABIAN BARRERTO<br />RUFINO CONDEZO<br />MANUEL ORIHUELA<br />JOSE MARCALAYA<br />LIDERATO RUIZ<br />BERNARDO LAZO<br />MARIANO OROCAJA<br />AGAPITO GUZMAN<br />FRANCISCO LAZO<br />MANUEL MOSQUERA<br />NAZARIO GOMEZ<br />GREGORIO HUAMALAYA<br />JOSE TOPALAYA<br />FERNANDO SOCOALAYA<br />SIMON SOTOMAYOR<br />CEFERINO CERRON<br /><br />VILCAURCO Y MORRO DE CHUPACA<br />Montoneros:<br />ADRIANO ORIHUELA<br />MARCOS GALVAN<br />ISIDORO ORIHUELA<br />N. LLANTUY<br />JULIAN SOTOMAYOR<br />MARIANO ORIHUELA<br />FRANCISCO GOMEZ<br />ANDRES ORIHUELA<br />CALIXTO CACHICO<br />ISIDORO SALVATIERRA<br />ANDRES OCHOA<br />CIPRIANO ORELLANA<br />SANTIAGO LAZO<br /><br />COMBATE DE HUARIPAMPA 22 ABRIL 1882<br />Muertos y Heridos<br />R.O. BUENAVENTURA MENDOZA<br />Montoneros:<br />ALEJO HUATUCO<br />TOMAS NINAHUANCA<br />PEDRO SOTO<br />TORIOBIO RAMOS<br />WENCESLAO NINAHUANCA<br />BUENAVENTURA OROSCO<br />ESTEBAN SANCHEZ<br />EDUARDO CUYUBAMBA<br />JOSE N. CERVANTES<br />ASCENCIO OROSCO<br />VICENTE CUYUBAMBA<br />AGAPITO VILLARREAL<br />BRUNO CARDENAS TORIBIO GUZMAN<br /><br />COMBATE DE ANTOSHPAMPA 22 ABRIL 1882<br />Montoneros:<br />LEONOR ORDOÑEZ<br />FELIPE VILCAHUAMAN<br />PEDRO TIZA<br />ANTONIUO GUANAY<br />AGUSTIN SANDOVAL<br />BARBARITO CENTENO<br />GREGORIO QUISPE<br />BERNARDO PORTOCARRERO<br />PANCRACIO CENTENO<br /><br />COMBATE DE MARCAVALLE – PUCAPA – CONCEPCION 9 Y 10 JULIO 1882<br />Coronel: DOMINGO CABRERA<br />Comandantes:<br />ANDRES A. PONDE<br />JOSE MANUEL MERCADO<br />FRANCISCO CARBAJAL<br />Mayor:<br />NICOLAS BERROSPI<br />Capitán COSME CURRO<br />Teniente ANTONIO VERA<br /><br />Sargento:<br />ESTEBAN GONZALES<br />Montoneros:<br />JUAN DE LA MATA SANABRIA<br />MARCOS CHAMORRO<br />ESTEBAN ALZAMORA<br />TOMAS ASTUCURI<br />CIPRIANO COCOCACHI<br />PAULINO MONGE<br />GREGORIO MALDONADO<br />BONIFACIO PANDO<br /><br />COMBATE DE SAN PABLO 13 DE JULIO 1882<br />Columna de Honor<br />Coronel: EUDOCIO RAVINES<br />Capitanes:<br />ELOY HERNANDEZ<br />EUGENIO NOVIENO<br />CESAR PIZARELLO<br />JUAN QUIROZ<br />Tenientes:<br />JOSE COBELLO<br />ALBERTO GOMEZ<br />JUAN PIZARRO<br />CLEMENTE RAVINES<br />JOSE MANUEL QUIROZ<br />JOSE NOVOA<br />MELCHOR SALAZAR<br />EDMUNDO SILVA<br />GREGORIO PITA<br />JOSE RODRIGUEZ<br />UBALDO SANCHEZ<br />MANUEL VILLAVICENCIO<br />JOSE MANUEL SILVA<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />JUAN ARROYO<br />JOSE BRIONES<br />ROBERTO CABANILLAS<br />JOSE CRUZ CEPEDA<br />FRANCISCO CASTREJON<br />JOSE CRUZETA<br />VICENTE LINARES<br />JUAN PIO MARREROS<br />JOSE PORTAL<br />FELIPE MATUTE<br />TORIBIO LOSADAS<br />M. QUIROZ<br />JOSE ZAFRA<br />MANUEL ZAFRA<br />MANUEL RAMIREZ<br /><br />LUIS SANCHEZ<br />JUAN SORIANO<br />LORENZO VALERA<br />ENRIQUE VILLANUEVA<br /><br />COLUMNA BAMBAMARCA<br />Mayor: DOMINGO MEJIA<br />Tenientes:<br />JOSE MANUEL ROMAN Y CAVERO<br />GONZALO MEJIA<br /><br />ESCUADRON VENGADORES DE CAJAMARCA<br />Obrero: JOSE DOLORES CUESTAS<br /><br />BATALLON CALLAO NO. 2<br />Capitán: MANUEL BAHAMONDE NAVEDA<br />Teniente: ARISTIDES DEL CARPIO<br /><br />BATALLON CHOTA NO. 7<br />Coronel: ANTONIO SANCHEZ<br />Comandante: DOMINGO MEJIA<br />Sargentos:<br />SATURNINO CUBAS<br />MARIANO VASQUEZ NUÑEZ<br />JOSE DEL CARMEN CAMPOS<br />Cabos:<br />DANIEL BENAVIDES<br />MANUEL SAAVEDRA<br />Soldados:<br />JOSE MARIA RUIZ<br />ANDRES CONTRERAS<br />EUSEBIO NUÑEZ<br />MATIAS MEJIA<br />MANUEL ASCENCIO CUBAS<br />SIMON REGALADO<br />SINFOROSO BENEVAIDES<br />RAMON NUÑEZ<br />JUAN REGALADO<br />PEDRO CUESTAS<br />LUCIANO NUÑEZ<br />ENRIQUE VILLANUEVA<br /><br />COLUMNA LIBRES DE TRUJILLO NO. 11<br />Comandante: JULIAN CRUZADO<br />Capitanes:<br />PEDRO VARGAS MARQUEZ<br />FERNANDO CACERES<br />Tenientes:<br />JOSE MANUEL MONTERO<br />MANUEL PALACIOS<br />Sub Teniente:<br />MANUEL DEZA<br />Teniente Niño Héroe: NESTOR BATANERO<br /><br />COMBATE DE SAN JUAN CRUZ 16 DE JULIO 1882<br />Capitán: ERNESTO FLORES<br />Teniente: JOSE PAULET<br /><br />BATALLA DE HUAMACHUCO 10 DE JULIO 1883<br />Muertos y Heridos<br />COMANDANCIA GENERAL<br />JEFE ESTADO MAYOR DE LOS EJERCITOS DEL CENTRO Y DEL NORTE<br />Coronel: MANUEL TAFUR<br /><br />APOSENTADOR GENERAL<br />General: PEDRO SILVA GIL<br />SECRETARIA<br />Comandante:<br />FLORENTINO PORTUGAL<br />Mayor: WENCESLAO DEL CARPIO<br />AYUDANTES<br />Capitanes:<br />PABLO JOSE ESLAVA FUENTES<br />LORENZO AMPUERO<br />DARIO ENRIQUEZ<br /><br />EJERCITO DEL CENTRO<br />PRIMERA DIVISION<br />Comandante General:<br />Mayor: JOSE F. CHILET<br />Capitán: SANTIAGO RAZURI<br />Teniente: FERNANDO CARRION<br /><br />BATALLON TARAPACA No. 1<br />Mayor: MANUEL LOPEZ<br />Capitanes:<br />N. BERMUDEZ<br />M. SANCHEZ<br /><br />BATALLON ZEPITA No. 2<br />Coronel: JUSTINIANO BORGOÑO<br />Mayor: ISAAC GOMEZ<br />Capitanes:<br />PEDRO P. MONTENEGRO<br />N. BARRANTES<br />REYNALDO SANTILLAN<br />Tenientes:<br />RUPERTO GUERRA<br />MARIANO QUINTANILLA<br />N. RANGEL<br />JOSE SORIA<br />FERMIN YAÑEZ<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />JOSE LA ROSA<br />PEDRO LUQUE<br />MELCHOR RODRIGUEZ<br />Abanderado: Sub Teniente: ARNALDO RODO<br /><br />SEGUNDA DIVISION<br />COMANDANCIA GENERAL<br />Jefe: Coronel: JUAN GASTO VALDERRAMA<br />Comandante:<br />DEMETRIO ARAUCO<br /><br />BATALLON MARCAVALLE No. 6<br />Coronel: FELIPE SANTIAGO CRESPO<br /><br />BATALLON CAZADORES DE CONCEPCION No. 7<br />Coronel: PEDRO JOSE CARRION ZERPA<br />Mayor: CRISANTO MEZA<br />Capitanes:<br />NARCISO CORDOVA<br />GUILLERMO EYZAGUIRRE<br />SEBASTIAN MONTES<br />JOSE MORENO<br />AGUSTIN ORBEGOSO<br />JOSE ROMAN<br />REYNALDO A. SORIA<br />Tenientes:<br />RICARDO CARDENAS<br />MANUEL CORRALES<br />JUAN PEDRO LUQUE MAYORGA<br />JOSE M. RIVERA<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />EMETERIO RECUERDO<br />ANDRES ROJAS<br />GERMAN I. ALVA<br />Soldado: LORENZO YUPANQUI BERRIOS<br /><br />BATALLON TARMA No. 11<br />Mayor: FORMIDORO VASCONES<br />Capitán: ENRIQUE OPPENHEIMMER<br />Sub Teniente: LIBORIO DELGADO<br /><br />TERCERA DIVISION<br />COMANDANCIA GENERAL<br />Jefe. Teniente Coronel: MAXIMO TAFUR<br /><br />BATALLON CAZADORES DE JAUJA No. 9<br />Tenientes:<br />CARLOS LECCA<br />LEONIDAS PANIAGUA<br />Sub Tenientes: FRANCISCO MONTERO<br /><br />BATALLON JUNIN No. 3<br />Coronel: JUAN CANCIO VIZCARRA<br />Capitanes:<br />BENJAMIN ALVARADO<br />ADOLFO PAULINO RIVAS<br />AVELINO CASAÑA<br />Tenientes:<br />JACINTO FRIAS<br />MANUEL SILVA<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />MANUEL JESUS FRIAS<br />ARTURO PINOCHET<br /><br />CUARTA DIVISION<br />COMANDANCIA GENERAL<br />Jefe: Capitán de Navío: LUIS GERMAN ASTETE<br />Teniente:<br />WASHINGTON QUINTANILLA<br /><br />BATALLON SAN GERONIMO<br />Mayor: JUAN LUIS DEL MAR<br />Teniente: MARIANO MEZA<br /><br />CABALLERIA<br />ESCUADRON CAZADORES DEL PERU<br />Mayor: SANTIAGO ZAVALA<br /><br />OTROS<br />Mayores:<br />MANUEL EULOGIO DEL RIO<br />JOSE MARIA LOPEZ<br />NICANOR RUEDA<br />RAFAEL RUEDA<br />ADOLFO TARZABOADA<br />Capitán de Corbeta: MANUEL H. ARRIAGA<br />Capitanes:<br />BENJAMIN CACERES<br />ADOLFO RIVAS<br />JULIO BASURTO<br />MANUEL RIVAS<br />JOSE DIAZ<br />COSME COBOS<br />JOSE MARIA SANTILLANA<br />RAYMUNDO SANTILLANA<br />N. SORIA<br />JOSE ANTONIO SOTO<br />Mayor: COSME GUTIERREZ<br />Tenientes;<br />MANUEL GAMERO<br />EMILIO ORCASITAS<br />ARTURO SANONI<br />Guardia Marina: HECTOR VILLARAN<br />Sub Tenientes:<br />MANUEL BASURTO<br />EUSEBIO COBO<br />SANTIAGO CABEZUDO<br />MARCOS CORNELIO<br />N. MESTANZA PALACIOS<br />ANDRES A. MONTOYA<br />JOSE MARIA LOPEZ<br />JUAN DE DIOS REVILLA<br />JOSE ANTONIO ZARRIA<br />JOSE MARIA PILARES<br />MANUEL ACUÑA<br /><br />EJERCITO DEL NORTE<br />COMANDANCIA GENERAL<br />Jefe: Coronel ISAAC RECAVARREN<br />Comandante: EMILIO JOSE VILA<br />Teniente: FRANCISCO AMORIN<br />Sub Teniente: ENRIQUE MINFLES<br /><br />QUINTA DIVISION<br />Jefe: Coronel: MARIANO ARAGONEZ<br /><br />BATALLON PUCARA No. 4<br />Comandante: N. PONCE DE LEON<br />Mayor: MELCHOR RAMIREZ HURTADO<br />Capitán: FRANCISCO CARREÑO<br /><br />SEXTA DIVISION<br />Jefe: Teniente Coronel: CIRIACO SALAZAR<br /><br />BATALLON HUALLAGA No. 12<br />Mayor: MIGUEL REVELLO CABRERA<br />Teniente: FRANCISCO GAMERO<br /><br />OTROS<br />Capitanes:<br />ADOLFO RAMOS<br />AQUILES ZAVALETA<br /><br />INMOLADOS EN DIVERSAS ACCIONES<br />AÑO 1880<br />25 ABRIL CALLAO Comandante PEDRO RUIZ GALLO<br />27 DICIEMBRE EL MANZANO Comandante: BALDOMERO AROSTEGUI<br /><br />AÑO 1881<br />13 ENERO CHORRILLOS<br />Cabo: BELISARIO MORENO<br />Bomberos:<br />LORENZO ASTRANA<br />ANGEL CEPOLLINI<br />LUCAS CHIAPE<br />ANGEL DESCALIZ JUAN LEONARDI<br />PABLO MARZANO<br />ENRIQUE NERINI<br />GIOVANNI OGNIO<br />JOSE ORENGO<br />FELIPE PARGNA<br />JUAN PAULI<br />PABLO RISSO<br />EGIDIO VALENTIN<br /><br />15 ENERO LIMA<br />Tipógrafo: RAMON LIONS<br /><br />8 ABRIL SAN JERONIMO<br />Teniente: ARISTIDES MENDEZ<br /><br />10 MAYO PACHACHACA<br />Gobernador: FRANCISCO DAVILA<br /><br />31 MAYO VILCABAMBA<br />JOSE VASQUEZ<br />FOITACION RAMOS<br /><br />15 JUNIO CHONGOYAPE<br />Mayor: CIPRIANO JIMENEZ<br /><br />25 JULIO LIMA<br />Capitanes:<br />FRANCISCO BALZAN<br />JUAN GRANDA<br />ESTANISLAO OTAROLA<br /><br />2 SETIEMBRE PACHIA<br />Mayores:<br />CARLOS DE LA TORRE<br />ABDEON MENA<br /><br />23 DICIEMBRE LIMA<br />MANUEL GUERRA<br />MANUEL HILARION ROLDAN<br /><br />AÑO 1882<br />CHUPACA<br />Teniente: PEDRO PATIÑO<br /><br />ENERO MOROCOCHA<br />Comandante: TOMAS PORTUGAL<br /><br />7 ENERO CHICLAYO<br />Capitán: FRANCISCO SARAVIA FLORES<br /><br />22 ENERO YAULI<br />N. ARMAS<br /><br />16 FEBRERO ICA<br />JOSE EMILIANO CASTILLO<br /><br />24 FEBRERO RUNATULLO<br />BARTOLA VASQUEZ<br /><br />10 ABRIL MALPASO<br />ESTANISLAO CONDOR<br /><br />19 ABRIL LA MEJORADA<br />Mayor TEODORO PEÑALOZA<br /><br />19 HUAMANCCACCA<br />ANDREA ARAUCO DE PEÑALOZA<br /><br />19 ABRIL ORCOTUMA<br />EMILIO HURTADO<br />JUAN PABLO HURTADO<br />RAMON PADILLA<br /><br />22 ABRIL HUAMANMARCA<br />TOMAS GUTARRA<br />ENRIQUE ROSADO<br />VICENTE SAMANIEGO VIVAS<br />23 ABRIL HUANCANI<br />MARIANO QUISPE<br /><br />28 ABRIL SAN JERONIMO<br />MAXIMO AGUILAR<br /><br />29 MAYO ICA<br />MANUEL MARTINEZ<br /><br />11 JUNIO HERVAY BAJO<br />Coronel: PABLO SOTO<br /><br />22 JUNIO LA ENSENADA<br />HUSARES:<br />JUAN MENDEZ<br />AGUSTIN CAMPOS<br />BENITO RONDON<br /><br />GUARDIA NACIONAL:<br />FRANCISCO EGUILUZ<br />RAMON CACERES<br /><br />28 JUIO CHINCHA<br />SIMON ZARATE<br /><br />AGOSTO CAÑETE<br />RUPERTO VERGARA<br />JOSE ORE<br />JUSTINIANO PEREYRA<br /><br />10 AGOSTO CAÑETE<br />MIGUEL GUTIERREZ<br /><br />16 AGOSTO MONTEJATO<br />Mayor: JOSE GUTIERREZ<br /><br />18 AGOSTO SUNAMPE<br />MARIANO MEJIA<br /><br />25 AGOSTO LA QUEBRADA<br />JUAN GARCIA<br /><br />29 AGOSTO CAÑETE<br />MANUEL DE LA CRUZ ALIAGA<br />MAXIMILIANO MONTALVAN<br />IGNACIO CARDENAS<br />SANTOS PARRAGA<br /><br />1 SETIEMBRE GUADALUPE<br />N. ESCALANTE<br />BASLIO ESPINOZA<br /><br />14 SETIEMBRE CONDORILLO<br />SANTIAGO CASTILLO<br /><br />15 SETIEMBRE CHINCHA<br />N. MONDRAGON<br />CALIXTO UGARTE<br /><br />7 OCTUBRE CAUSANI<br />Coronel: GREGORIO ALBARRACIN LANCHIPA<br />Teniente: ALBARRACIN BERRIOS<br /><br />14 DIEICMBRE LUNAHUANA<br />R. P. MANUEL ROMERO<br /><br />AÑO 1883<br />14 FEBRERO UNGARA<br />N. CABRERA<br /><br />15 FEBRERO SAMA<br />Comandante: NICOLAS ORTIZ HUAMAN<br /><br />MARZO CANTA<br />Capitán: MATIAS MARTINEZ<br /><br />26 ABRIL BALCONCILLO<br />Mayor: LUIS P. SACRAVILKCA<br /><br />27 ABRIL HUAMANTANGA<br />Mayores:<br />JOSE MARIANO VILLEGAS<br />MANUEL VARGAS<br />NOLASCO LOPEZ<br />Capitanes:<br />JOSE MARIA TORO<br />MANUEL LOPEZ<br />Teniente: MANUEL BUITON<br />Sub Teniente: MANUEL TAGLE<br />Soldados:<br />MANUEL RUIZ<br />JOSE ARTURO VILCHEZ<br />FRANCISCO LOPEZ<br /><br />JUNIO CHAVIN DE HUANZA<br />Teniente: HERMINIO URDANIVIA<br /><br />12 JUNIO AGUAMIRO<br />Mayor: ENRIQUE PARDO<br />Teniente: NICANOR ICAZA<br /><br />6 JULIO PACOA<br />Coronel: MILCIADES RIOS<br /><br />8 JULIO JACTAY<br />Soldado: APARICIO POMARES<br /><br />15 JULIO HUAMACHUCO<br />Coroneles:<br />LEONCIO PRADO<br />MIGUEL EMILIA LUNA<br />Capitanes:<br />JUAN ANTONIO PORTUGAL<br />BELIZARIO CACERES Y OSMA<br />Soldados:<br />PATRICIO LANZA<br />FELIPE TRUJILLO<br /><br />31 AGOSTO COLCA<br />TOMAS CABRERA<br /><br />11 NOVIEMBRE PACHIA<br />Capitán: JUAN HERRERA<br />24 NOVIEMBRE QUEQUEÑA<br />JUAN DE DIOS ACOSTA<br />JOSE MARIANO AVILA<br />ANGEL FIGUEROA<br />LIBORIO LINARES<br />MANUEL LINARES<br />CIPRIANO RUIZMitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-62312265233266742672009-05-25T15:40:00.000+08:002014-05-01T11:13:08.486+08:00La Guardia Nacional<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: medium; "><b><span style="font-family:Arial;"><i><p align="CENTER">(El pueblo en armas)</p></i></span></b><span style="font-family:Arial;"><i></i><p align="RIGHT">por Jorge Ojeda Frex</p><p align="RIGHT"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">Como ya sabemos, al invadir Antofagasta, el ejército chileno contaba con unos 2.500 hombres, solo 23 meses después, más de 41.000 chilenos cargaban las armas, de ellos solo la cuarta parte eran soldados profesionales, las otras tres cuartas partes pertenecían a una organización denominada "Guardia Nacional", el presente trabajo pretende entregar una visión sobre este cuerpo de tropas tan fundamentales para la victoria, sus orígenes, su armamento, organización y evolución.</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">La Guardia Nacional era una organización de antigua data, podemos considerarla heredera de las antiguas milicias de tiempos coloniales.</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">Para comprender mejor a esta organización se hace necesario primero que nada entender la lógica que permitía su existencia, cosa que puede resultar un tanto complejo hoy en día de comprender, toda vez que se cruzan elementos teóricos como fácticos, mismos que intentaré separar a fin de que sea más simple de comprender.</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">El Estado no es más que una creación de las personas que lo componen, las teorías que lo justifican son las clásicas ideas del pacto social(1), la comunidad que antes de la existencia del Estado vive en un "estado de naturaleza", a través del concierto de todas las voluntades suscribe este "pacto social" en virtud del cual crea al Estado, que es el que velará por el bienestar de la comunidad, es por esta razón que una de las primeras tareas del Estado es cautelar la seguridad de la comunidad, por eso crea las fuerzas armadas. Ahora bien teniendo en cuenta la vieja ley económica que nos señala que las necesidades son múltiples y los recursos limitados(2), no siempre los recursos del Estado eran suficientes para garantizar la protección del cuerpo social, por lo que para enfrentar estas contingencias era necesario arbitrar otro tipo de recursos, ahora bien si el estado al protegerse así mismo en realidad protege a la comunidad, y digamos si un ciudadano(3) defiende al Estado, en realidad se está protegiendo así mismo, es perfectamente lógico que se prepare para estas "circunstancias extraordinarias", esta lógica permite la existencia de la Guardia Nacional, esto es de ciudadanos que sin ser militares reciben algún tipo de instrucción militar, ojo que está respuesta a la necesidad no es la única posible, otra respuesta sería claramente el actual "Servicio Militar Obligatorio". Entonces, la Guardia Nacional no era otra cosa que la idea de "Colectividad en armas".</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">Ahora bien, vistos los argumentos teóricos que posibilitan la existencia de la Institución es necesario ver los hechos fácticos que determinan la elección de esta opción por sobre otra como pudo ser el Servicio Militar Obligatorio, la realidad era que se trataba de un instrumento político, Diego Portales, padre de la institucionalidad chilena, al crear esta institución tiene en mira el hecho de que necesita un contrapeso institucional al ejército, que a pesar del pequeño número del mismo(4) fue un importante factor para el "cambio" de gobierno o sistema, hasta la década de 1830, interesante es el hecho de que se dio la paradoja que Portales creo un equilibrio en base a la creación de un brazo armado para hacer "contrapeso" al otro brazo armado del Estado.</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">Lo cierto es que en muchas ocasiones los Guardias Nacionales también fueron participes de revoluciones o cuartelazos, pero en realidad no se puede desconocer que por regla general fueron valiosos auxiliares de las fuerzas leales a los gobiernos, mismas que sofocaron dichos cuartelazos o revoluciones.</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">En su gran prueba de fuego, la Guerra del Pacifico, fueron de todas maneras absolutamente decisivos para lograr la victoria; en Pisagua la primera oleada de desembarco estuvo compuesta en sus 2/3 partes por los Guardias Nacionales del Batallón "Atacama", en Dolores, fueron los Guardias Nacionales de los batallones "Atacama" y "Coquimbo" los que rechazaron a los aliados en su ataque a la batería Salvo, en Tarapacá, junto a los soldados de línea cayeron los Guardias nacionales del batallón "Chacabuco", en Los Angeles nuevamente el batallón "Atacama" fue la unidad que realizó la peligrosa escalada que permitió la victoria, en Tacna de un total de 1.975 infantes caídos, 104 fueron Policías, 760 Soldados de Línea y 1.111 Guardias Nacionales, en Chorrillos y Miraflores se batieron por el lado chileno 13 batallones del Ejército de Línea, 1 de Policías y 30 de la Guardia Nacional, finalmente fueron los soldados de los batallones de la Guardia Nacional "Talca" y "Concepción" quienes apoyados por dos Compañías del "Zapadores" los que derrotaron definitivamente al General Cáceres en Huamachuco, posibilitando la firma del tratado de Ancón y el final de la guerra.</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">Bueno, hecho este pequeño recorrido debemos saber que hacía 1877 la Guardia nacional agrupaba un total de 24.287 hombres, cifra que por razones económicas se redujo drásticamente a solo 6.687 hombres ese año, al ser disueltas 31 unidades.</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">Respecto a la instrucción, las unidades de la Guardia Nacional se reunían los fines de semana y por una o dos horas realizaban ejercicios consistentes en evoluciones y formaciones(5).</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">En lo orgánico, como ya hemos dicho, estas unidades no pertenecían ni dependían directamente al ejército, sino que se encontraban subordinadas a mandos locales denominados "Comandancias Generales de Armas"; a nivel superior, dependían de una "Inspección General de la Guardia Nacional".</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">Las unidades se encontraban bajo el mando de un oficial del Ejército de Línea, y se agrupaban en Compañías, Escuadrones, Brigadas y Batallones de las tres armas(6).</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">Como podemos imaginar el nivel de instrucción con este sistema estaba lejos de considerarse optimo, podemos imaginar que en realidad esto se reducía a saber formarse y desfilar.</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">En 1879, al producirse la ocupación de Antofagasta el gobierno reorganizó rápidamente la Guardia Nacional, fueron decretados numerosos acuartelamientos y movilización de nuevas unidades a fin de acelerar la instrucción de estos contingentes, a medida que transcurrió el tiempo este acuartelamiento fue racionalizado.</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">Muchos fueron los contingentes de Guardias Nacionales que fueron separados de sus unidades y enviados al norte para completar los cuadros de las unidades de línea(7).</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">Así y todo lo expuesto algunas unidades de la Guardia Nacional alcanzaron con increíble prontitud niveles de instrucción bastante satisfactorios(8), lo cual habla bastante bien de los comandantes de dichas unidades.</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">Respecto a la reorganización de las unidades, se crearon dos niveles de movilización, así encontramos la Guardia Nacional "Movilizada" y la "Estática" o "Sedentaria", al primer nivel correspondían las unidades que permanecían acuarteladas y realizaban una vida e instrucción tal cual el ejército, así mismo podían servir en cualquier punto del país, en tanto las del segundo nivel seguían el mismo régimen de tiempos de paz.</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">En cuanto al armamento, como es comprensible, las tropas fueron armadas con lo que se encontró, dejando el mejor armamento para las unidades de la Guardia Nacional Movilizada en el teatro de operaciones, de esta manera en Julio de 1880, cuando las compras alcanzaron un nivel suficiente las tropas de la Guardia Nacional Movilizada se armaba con fusiles Comblaim y Gras en el caso de las unidades de primera línea, mientras las de segunda línea estaban armadas con fusiles Beaumont(9) y en menor medida con viejos Chassepots, las unidades de la Guardia Nacional Estática estaban armados con los antiguos fusiles Snyder, Minie y Chassepots e incluso anticuadisimos fusiles franceses rallados.</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">Por aquellas mismas fechas la Guardia Nacional Movilizada agrupaba a 2 regimientos y 19 batallones de infantería y 3 escuadrones de Caballería, con un personal teórico de unos 14.550 hombres, mientras la Guardia Nacional Estática por su parte agrupaba 40 batallones, 24 brigadas y 5 Compañías de Infantería, 11 batallón, 13 brigadas y 1 compañía de Artillería y 1 regimiento, 10 escuadrones y 2 compañías de Caballería; seis meses después, para la campaña de Lima cuando la organización alcanzó su peak, la Guardia Nacional Movilizada agrupó a 20 regimientos y 15 batallones de infantería, 1 brigada de artillería y 6 escuadrones de artillería con un personal teórico de unos 35.000 hombres.</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">Tras la toma de Lima numerosas unidades fueron retornadas a Chile y sus hombres licenciados, pero muchas otras permanecieron en labores de ocupación hasta el final de la guerra.</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">A principios del siglo XX, la Guardia Nacional fue abolida, en su reemplazo apareció el Servicio Militar Obligatorio, con la Guardia Nacional terminaba una gran y noble institución que a lo largo de su alrededor de 70 años de existencia cumplió noblemente con su deber, mucho más de 50.000 chilenos pasaron por sus filas durante de la Guerra del Pacifico(10) de ellos varios miles murieron.</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><p align="JUSTIFY">Posteriormente en la década de 1930 una nueva organización denominada "Milicia Republicana" surge bajo la misma lógica de la vieja Guardia Nacional, pero al cabo de unos pocos años fue abolida, ya que comenzó a transformarse en una institución de Corte Fascista.</p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><b><p align="JUSTIFY">NOTAS</p></b></span><ol><span style="font-family:Arial;"><b></b></span><span style="font-family:Arial;font-size:85%;"><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><li>Ideas que pueden resultar cuestionables pero que no lo haré por no ser un tema de este trabajo, y además sin este presupuesto no podríamos realizar el presente ejercicio, solamente remitiré a quien desee enterarse más sobre el tema al "triunvirato" clásico de autores Hoobes, Locke y Roseau.</li><p></p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><li>Esto no es un eufemismo en el caso del Estado de Chile, que a lo largo de gran parte del Siglo XIX vivió una crónica escasez de recursos que determinaba que cualquier gasto del Estado fuera criticado, un buen ejemplo creo sería la gran polémica por la compra de mobiliario para el Palacio de La Moneda, los muebles fueron comprados a precio de mercado pero de todas maneras algunos alegaron que se habían excedido los gastos.</li><p></p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><li>En este caso estamos dando al término "ciudadano" una acepción más amplia a la de sujeto con derechos políticos, podríamos hacerla homologa al término "nacional", es decir en este caso de chileno.</li><p></p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><li>En circunstancias normales el Ejército chileno hasta el estallido de la Guerra del Pacifico nunca superó las 4.000 plazas.</li><p></p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><li>Es de hacer notar que los peruanos utilizaban un sistema muy similar para adiestrar al ejército de reserva, para la campaña de Lima.</li><p></p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><li>Dos observaciones, normalmente los oficiales que comandaban estas unidades eran sujetos caídos en desgracia en el Ejército de línea, como Juan Martínez.</li><p></p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><li>Por ejemplo 300 hombres del batallón de la provincia de Atacama fueron enviados para completar los cuadros del regimiento 2º de Línea.</li><p></p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><li>Ejemplo de esto son los batallones "Atacama", "Coquimbo" y "Artillería Naval".</li><p></p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><li>Los fusiles Beaumont, Gras y Comblaim eran equivalentes, modernos y tras pequeñas modificaciones en los dos primeros utilizaban la misma munición que los Comblaim.</li><p></p><p align="JUSTIFY"></p><li>El equivalente a unos 350.000 hombres, tomando en cuenta la población actual.</li></span></ol></span>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-91325894274463666332009-05-25T15:37:00.001+08:002016-08-23T16:17:17.225+08:00Las olas virtuales de la Guerra del Pacífico<b>por Jorge Ojeda Frex</b><br /><br />
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
Aunque han pasado 125 años desde que comenzó la
Guerra del Pacífico, la proeza de Prat y sus muchachos sigue más viva
que nunca en la red. Un sinnúmero de páginas recuerda a los héroes
olvidados y rinde tributo a los que dieron la vida por la patria.</div>
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<br /></div>
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El primer sitio para visitar es el de la Armada de Chile. En <a href="http://www.armada.cl/" target="_blank">www.armada.cl</a>,
en "Tradición e historia", hay información muy completa sobre estas
fechas. Además, biografías, los buques de ayer y el himno de la Armada.
Claro que lo mejor es el rincón para niños, con una buena cantidad de
links y datos sobre el mar en la historia de Chile, sus recursos y el
combate naval de Iquique.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Lo mismo pasa con "El cuartel de los niños" que preparó el Ejército en <a href="http://www.ejercito.cl/ninos/pacifico" target="_blank">www.ejercito.cl/ninos/pacifico</a>.
Aquí cuentan de manera simple y lúdica las distintas campañas del
ejército del norte. También se puede leer acerca de las causas, las
consecuencias y apreciar una completa galería de personajes con sus
biografías, las armas que se usaban y juegos alusivos a la época.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Otra buena por si hay tareas a la vista es Revista Marina <a href="http://www.revistamarina.cl/" target="_blank">www.revistamarina.cl</a>. Pese a que es harto más seria, tiene una gran base de datos con artículos sobre la historia, filosofía y próceres navales.</div>
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Para los coleccionistas, lo mejor es es.groups.yahoo.com/group/guerradelpacificocoleccionistas.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Y si busca una mirada distinta del conflicto, en <a href="http://www.humo.cl/monografias/la" target="_blank">www.humo.cl/monografias/la guerra/pacif.htm</a> guerra/pacif.htm) puede enterarse de que la Guerra del Pacífico fue el evento que dio inicio a la fotografía bélica en Chile.</div>
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<b><span class="roj">ENLACES</span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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En el sitio de Memoria Chilena <a href="http://www.memoriachilena.cl/" target="_blank">www.memoriachilena.cl</a>
hay cuadros de destacados pintores chilenos donde aparece Arturo Prat
y, lo más notable, se pueden descargar en PDF las distintas cartas que
el héroe de Iquique le escribió a su esposa, Carmela Carvajal, y el
telegrama anunciando los resultados del Combate Naval de Iquique.
Además, está el libro completo de Gonzalo Bulnes sobre la Guerra del
Pacífico y los dos tomos del "Álbum de la gloria de Chile", de Benjamín
Vicuña Mackenna.</div>
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<br /></div>
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El diseño de este sitio <a href="http://www.guerradelpacifico.tk/" target="_blank">www.guerradelpacifico.tk</a>no
es de lo mejor, pero muestra excelente información. Aquí podrá
enterarse de las campañas, los estamentos, los uniformes y banderas.
Tiene algunos links que no funcionan.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
La banda de guerra "Valiente soldado" tiene una simpática página web <a href="http://www.valientesoldado.cl/" target="_blank">www.valientesoldado.cl</a>donde
se pueden oír distintas marchas militares, incluidas las de la Guerra
del Pacífico. Si quiere unirse a la banda desde cualquier parte de
Chile, le dicen paso a paso todo lo que tiene que hacer. Algunos links
no funcionan.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
La Escuela Naval Arturo Prat <a href="http://www.escuelanaval.cl/" target="_blank">www.escuelanaval.cl</a>
obviamente está conmemorando con bombos y platillos estas fechas. Pero
en su sitio no se refleja. Hay un sólo link a Historia, pero sólo habla
de los orígenes de la escuela. Ni una biografía de don Arturo.</div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<br /></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
Ideal
para buscar a algún antepasado, el sitio de la "Dirección General de
Movilización Nacional Relaciones Nominales del Ejército chileno
participante en la Guerra del Pacífico" muestra los nombres de los
integrantes del ejército expedicionario del norte y tiene un buen
sistema de búsqueda por nombre, unidad y grado. La dirección es
http://web.aquacom.cl/maquetas/nominales_web/index.htm </div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<br /></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<b><span class="roj">Los héroes olvidados</span></b></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<br /></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
Un
sitio completo y conmovedor dedicado a todos los militares, civiles y
marinos que combatieron. Tiene las biografías y lugar de descanso de
héroes anónimos de Chile, Perú y Bolivia. Además, se pueden apreciar los
uniformes y algunas reliquias.</div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<a href="http://www.laguerradelpacifico.cl/" target="_blank">www.laguerradelpacifico.cl</a></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<br /></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
</div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<b><span class="roj">Educación Chile</span></b></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<br /></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
Educarchile
creó un especial sobre el mes del mar y la Guerra del Pacífico donde se
pueden conocer detalles interesantes, como el rol que jugaron las
mujeres durante esta época o cuál es la visión del mes de mar que tiene
un grupo de estudiantes de un liceo de Iquique.</div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<br /></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<a href="http://www.educarchile.cl/" target="_blank">www.educarchile.cl</a></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<br /></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<b><span class="roj">El museo del Huáscar</span></b></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<br /></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
Buen
sitio donde se puede leer acerca de la historia de la embarcación,
desde su contrato de fabricación hasta su captura, devolución y
posterior traslado hasta Talcahuano. Además, buena información sobre la
Guerra del Pacífico, el Combate Naval de Iquique y, lo mejor, la
posibilidad de hacer una visita virtual al Huáscar y verlo desde
diferentes ángulos.</div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<br /></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<a href="http://www.huascar.cl/" target="_blank">www.huascar.cl</a></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<br /></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<b><span class="roj">A mi bisabuelo</span></b></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<br /></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
La
página creada por Jorge Ojeda es un homenaje a su bisabuelo Ramón Frex,
"quien partió a la guerra de muy joven enrolado en el Regimiento Cívico
Valparaíso". Además de la información, lo más notable es la
recopilación de sonidos de guerra, como el toque de diana y la versión
orquestada de "Adiós al Séptimo de Línea".</div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<br /></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091024203836/http://geocities.com/blautz_9000/" target="_blank">www.geocities.com/blautz_9000</a></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<br /></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<b><span class="roj">Mar de Chile</span></b></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<br /></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
Con
un diseño atractivo, el sitio Mar de Chile, entrega una cronología
minuto a minuto de la gesta de Prat. También información de los
distintos combates, los héroes y un conmovedor relato del hundimiento de
la Esmeralda. Un sólo detalle: tantos recursos gráficos hacen que el
sitio se ponga un poco lento a ratos.</div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<br /></div>
<div class="TEXTarticulo">
<a href="http://www.mardechile.cl/" target="_blank">www.mardechile.cl</a></div>
<br />
Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-61114277435995436082009-05-17T18:06:00.002+08:002014-05-01T11:13:08.476+08:00EVOLUCIÓN DE LA INFANTERÍA CHILENA A LO LARGO DE LA GUERRA<p class="MsoNormal">Esta arma se organizo en torno a los cuerpos de línea existententes al momento de la declaración de guerra, estos cuerpos fueron ampliandose gradualmente en número de compañías y soldados hasta llegar al standart que se mantuvo hasta el termino de la campaña de Lima.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Así los primitivos batallones fueron transformados a regimientos, estas nuevas unidades se componían de una pequeña plana mayor, usualmente el comandante de rango Teniente Coronel, el segundo comandante de rango identico al anterior o Sargento Mayor, un Capitán Ayudante de mayor jerarquía que los demás capitanes, un oficial abanderado, normalmente un teniente un par de subtenientes que hacían las veces de ayudantes y los ordenanzas (soldados rasos encargados de prestar todo tipo de servicios a los oficiales, como por ejemplo cocinarles, remendarles la ropa, etc.) luego el regimiento se componía de dos batallones, que solo eran una agrupación de cuatro compañías, dos de ellas de fúsileros, en tanto las otras dos recibían el nombre de compañías de granaderos y de cazadores, pero que en la practica no se diferenciaban de las de fusileros, el total de tropas que componía las compañías eran cuatro oficiales (un capitán, un teniente y dos subtenientes)y 150 soldados y suboficiales en el caso de las compañías de fúsileros y 149 en el caso de las de granaderos y cazadores. Lo anterior nos da un total aproximado de 600 hombres por batallon y 1200 por regimiento. Pero por regla general producto de las bajas producidas principalmente por enfermedades, el número de hombres se acercaba en la practica a unos 120 hombres por compañía, 500 por batallon y unos 900 a 1000 hombres por regimiento, así tenemos finalmente la infantería organizada en cuatro regimientos, cinco posteriormente de organizarse el regimiento de línea "Santiago".</p> <p class="MsoNormal">El regimiento de "Artillería de Marina", mantubo una organización que escapa a toda la lógica anterior, puesto que siguió actuando como una fuerza de infantería, pero reforzada con<br />algunos cañones de bronce, su número fue aumentado también hasta 1.200 hombres pero en<br />estricto rigor, jamás contó con tal número, puesto que las guarniciones de los barcos de la escuadra como ya se sabe provenían de este cuerpo, así como la guarnición de la estrategica colonia de Punta Arenas, en el estrecho de Magallanes, es así como en Tarapacá presenta unos 500 hombres a la campaña, en Tacna unos 650 y menos de 400 a Lima.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Por otro lado la guardia nacional se organizo en principio por regla general en Batallones, solo el "Lautaro" y el "Esmeralda" fueron organizados como regimientos analogos a los de línea,<br />los batallones podían ser de dos tipos; analogos a los de los regimientos de Línea, reforzados<br />por una pequeña plana mayor, es decir cuatro compañías con un total de 600 hombres. O bien<br />organizados en base a una plana mayor y seis compañías, cuatro de fusileros, una de Granaderos y otra de Cazadores, cada una de estas con cuatro oficiales y 98 a 100 soldados, dependiendo si se trataba de granaderos o cazadores, o bien fusileros, pero como ya se dijo con anterioridad esta<br />distinción carecia de efectos practicos. Al igual que los batallones de los regimientos de línea el<br />número real de tropas tanto en los batallones del primer tipo (4 compañías), como los del segundo (6 compañías) era de 500 a 550 hombres. El batallón "Naval" fué una exepción al tiempo de la campaña de Lima, puesto que se organziaba en seis compañías pero del mismo tamaño que los batallones de cuatro compañía, con lo que en la practica tenía casí tanto personal como algunos regimientos (unos 800 hombres).</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Sin embargo a medida que el conflicto se extendió, en tiempo y magnitud, la mayor parte<br />de los batallones que primitivamente operaron en Tarapacá o Tacna, hacía el tiempo de la campaña de Lima se habían transformado en regimientos idénticamente organizados a las unidades de Línea.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Solo la Policía de Valparaíso organizada como Batallón escapo a la regla general de la organización de dichos cuerpos, se le organizó en solo tres compañías, con un total de unos 350<br />hombres. Este cuerpo fue enviado devuelta a Chile, luego de la campaña de Tacna y reemplazado<br />por una nueva unidad con el mismo nombre pero no organizado como un batallón sino como un<br />regimiento, realizo esta aclaración pues normalmente esta unidad provoca confusiones.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Al termino de la campaña de Lima, se reorganizaron los cuerpos, es así como al "Santiago" se le redesigna como 5º de línea, así mismo dos cuerpos cívicos que se distinguieron en las campañas fueron transformados en unidades de línea el "Chacabuco", que se convirtió en el 6º de Línea y el "Esmeralda" que paso a denominarse 7º de Línea. la reorganización fue mucho más allá, es así como los regimientos se transforman en Batallones de seis compañías, al estilo del batallón "Naval" es decir teóricamente con 900 hombres.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> <br /> En el plano del armamento, los cuerpos de línea estaban armados con el excelente fusil Belga Comblaim, modelo 1876, un arma bastante nueva y mortífera, por su parte a los cuerpos de la Guardia Nacional se les equipó con el mismo fusil Comblaim o bien con el fusil Francés Grass, es decir en las unidades chilenas a diferencia de las peruanas tenían una bien homogénea masa de armamentos, lo cual unido a que ambos fusiles tenían el mismo calibre (11 mm), y podían utilizar las mismas municiones, simplificaba tremendamente el trabajo de los servicios logísticos. Finalmente en el plano de armamentos es necesario decir que las tropas de guarnición en el territorio chileno, usaban el fusil francés Beaumont, también de 11 mm.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Luego de la toma de Lima, las tropas armadas con fusil Grass, cambiaron este armamento por los Comblain de los cuerpos repatriados, transformándose este fusil en el estándar de la infantería durante el resto de la guerra.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">En el plano de equipamiento, los soldados calzaban excelentes medias botas cafés, los pantalones eran de tela, y por lo general los cuerpos de línea usaban el uniforme francés (chaqueta azul marino corta, solo hasta la cintura, y pantalones rojos), en cuanto al Kepí, en este se colocaba un símbolo distintivo para la unidad, además los soldados que habían participado en batallas llevaban sobre el pecho cintas (una por acción en la cual se hubiera participado), en la campaña de Lima antes de Chorrillos, habían soldados que llevaban hasta siete cintas, estas después fueron cambiadas por medallas. Este uniforme descrito es muy distinto al que lucieron en la parada militar 2000 la 4º Compañía del Batallón "Chacabuco", quienes inexplicablemente lucían uniformes con grandes errores, chaquetas largas, botas negras y con cordones, lo que nos demuestra lo "acuciosos" que son los soldados cuando nos preparan estas sorpresas.....</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Camarada fiel del soldado en las marchas por el desierto era la "Caramayola", cantimplora esférica, con capacidad para dos litros de agua, y un cinturon porta balas, este cinturón tenía veinte pequeños estuches donde se guardaban 200 balas, a razón de 10 por estuche, pero muchos de estos tenían los estuches sin la parte superior por lo que las balas se perdían por montones cuando los soldados se tendían.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">Respecto del personal, la tropa del ejército de tiempos de paz era lo que se podía conseguir con la oferta que se tenía, a cambio de mucho riesgo, representada por muertes terribles en la campaña contra los Araucanos, poca comida, condiciones sanitarias deplorables, malos tratos, una ordenanza general de Ejército Draconiana y un sueldo de pellejerías, además de estar obligado el soldado a reponer cualquier pieza de su equipo que se perdiera, obviamente solo los desesperados o aventureros podrían elegir esa profesión, como se comprenderá la única forma de mantener a esta tropa bajo control era a través de la más estricta disciplina, de ahí se sigue lo que señalaba antes, como Ordenanza General de Ejército tan dura. Con el estallido de la guerra este personal fue cambiado, millares de hombres pidieron una plaza o fueron reclutados, entre estos encontramos una heterogeneidad tremenda, desde oficiales de sala de la Corte de apelaciones (como el caso de Justo Abel Rosales, quien ingresa al ejército como Sargento 1º), estudiantes púberes (Como Arturo Benavides) o huasos chillanejos (como Hipólito Gutiérrez). En general los soldados mostraban una buena capacidad e iniciativa a la hora de combatir, pero por sobre todo en los momentos de dificultad mostraban una tendencia a resistir hasta las últimas consecuencias, prueba de ello es el combate de Tarapacá, donde el RI 2º de Línea por ejemplo sufrió alrededor de un ¡40% de bajas!, y de 2.300 hombres que componían la expedición, se perdieron aproximadamente un 32% y de ellos sol cayeron prisioneros solo un 2,6% del total de combatientes. También es posible encontrar esta actitud en combates como el de Concepción y Tambo de Mora.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> La jefatura del ejército no era, como algunos los han pintado, un grupo de genios a la altura de los más grandes generales de la historia, sino más bien se trataba de hombres limitados, su experiencia de guerra se basaba principalmente en las campañas araucanas, y en un grupo muy pequeño (Arteaga, Sotomayor, Santa Cruz, Ramírez) además por el estudio de manuales extranjeros, pero en general incluso este reducido número de hombres se mostraron más bien rígidos y carentes de iniciativa, como por ejemplo no olvidemos que Sotomayor pensaba dar batalla a Buendia en el llano de Santa Catalina, Arteaga se olvidó por completo de la más elemental logística al marchar sobre Tarapacá, Santa Cruz no se atrevió a plantear combate con sus fuerzas en Tarapacá aún viendo que el plan original estaba fracasado, y Ramírez aún sabiendo que era un error del porte de una ballena el descender a la quebrada con su regimiento, obedeció rígidamente. Ahora si estos eran la oficialidad intelectual, que queda para los otros como Escala y Baquedano por ejemplo; el ejército se vio limitado a movimientos elementales, el ataque frontal de Baquedano en Tacna, Chorrillos y Miraflores son una prueba de ello, se venció es cierto, pero el costo fueron baños de sangre.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Pero no todo es negativo en el comando chileno, es posible apreciar una notable evolución gracias a la mejor de las escuelas, la guerra misma, y es así como personajes que aparentemente estaban destinados a ser secundarios brillaron, Lagos, Velásquez y Gorosteaga, y otros más inteligentes recuperaron su fama, como Sotomayor, quien realizó tal ves el movimiento táctico más espectacular de la guerra transformado la orden de Baquedano, de carga frontal, en el derrumbamiento del centro peruano en San Juan.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Nada más podemos decir, hubo que luchar una guerra, se hizo con lo que se tenía a mano, se enfrentó a un enemigo decidido y valiente, pero la infantería chilena salió triunfante.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> por Jorge Ojeda Frex</p>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-20749677461635621752009-05-17T18:06:00.001+08:002014-05-01T11:13:08.402+08:00LA MOVILIZACIÓN EN CHILE<p class="MsoNormal">Como se ha señalado con anterioridad al iniciarse el conflicto, el ejército chileno estaba compuesto por cuatro batallones de 300 hombres cada uno, más un batallón de Zapadores, dos regimientos de caballería uno de tres y otro de dos escuadrones, cada uno de estos escuadrones de 125 hombres, un regimiento de artillería armado con 16 piezas modernas y un batallón de artillería de marina, que servía las guarniciones de la escuadra, de 300 hombres.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">La pregunta que debe surgir de manera casi inmediata es como sobre la base de este pequeño conjunto de tropas de línea de no más de 3.000 hombres se pudo movilizar una gran fuerza que al término de la campaña de Lima, luego de solo 23meses había movilizado 60.000 hombres.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">La respuesta es que la eficiencia del gobierno chileno fue extraordinaria, esto pensando que la movilización se realizó sobre la base del enganche voluntario, El primer contingente de voluntarios estuvo dado por la Guardia Nacional, una milicia de civiles voluntarios, que se había disuelto en 1878, pero que fue rápidamente reclamado, estas tropas de mala calidad, organizada en Brigadas (unidades intermedias entre batallones y compañías) y Batallones, agrupaba a unos 6.000 hombres, el gobierno decidió que lo mejor era junto con aumentar el tamaño de las unidades de línea, crear rápidamente más cuerpos de Guardia Nacional, los cuales entregarían una instrucción básica a los voluntarios y de esta manera sin perturbar gravemente a la sociedad aumentar los contingentes.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">La Guardia Nacional estaba ligada a su ciudad, y realizaban solo algunos ejercicios básicos sin salir de ella a menos de recibir orden expresa vía Decreto Presidencial, en este caso el Gobierno llamaba a servicio a una cantidad determinada de hombres de una unidad de la Guardia Nacional y los enviaba luego a las unidades de línea a completar su instrucción, pero a la vez se decidió que era necesario movilizar algunos batallones de Guardias Nacionales completos, entonces poco a poco el ejército creció en número de tropas y de unidades.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Por otra parte el gobierno de Perú entregó también varios millares de voluntarios para el ejército chileno, al decretar la expulsión y confiscación de los bienes de los chilenos residentes en Perú. No solo la medida creó un sentimiento de ira entre los más de 15.000 chilenos expulsados, sino que inevitablemente, muchos de los funcionarios encargados de esta medida actuaron de manera vejatoria, aumentando la ira de los expulsados, que muchas veces se vieron obligados a vivir en condiciones precarias asilados en lanchones hasta que fueron rescatados por la escuadra chilena y remitidos al sur, donde se peleaban los puestos en los batallones y regimientos para volver al norte y cobrar venganza.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">En honor a la verdad hay que señalar que dentro de todas esta actitud del gobierno peruano fue la más sensata, que otra cosa podía hacer, esos 15.000 chilenos de quedarse representaban un peligro en potencia, la otra solución internarlos, también era un error, el Perú no podía desviar recursos para la manutención de un número tan grande de civiles, y aún de haberlos podido desviar, basta recordar que aún hoy en los campos de reclusión las condiciones de vida son muchas veces miserables, el Perú pudo cargar con lo que hoy conocemos como delitos de lesa humanidad, sin lugar a dudas la acción de expulsar a los miles de chilenos de Perú fue la alternativa más humanitaria que se pudo haber tomado y de hecho se hizo así.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><u>Cuadro de Movilización Chileno:<o:p></o:p></u></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b>1.- 1879 antes de la declaración oficial de guerra:<o:p></o:p></b></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0cm;" start="1" type="a"><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Creación de un nuevo batallón de Línea, que no recibió número, si no solo el nombre de "Santiago", fue puesto bajo el mando del Teniente Coronel Pedro Lagos.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Se transformaron los cinco batallones de infantería de Línea en Regimientos de 1.238 hombres (26 de Marzo).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">A las fuerzas de artillería destacadas en Antofagasta se transforman en una brigada (Grupo) independiente, siendo puesto bajo el mando del Teniente Coronel José Velásquez (26 de Marzo).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">El Regimiento de Caballería "Cazadores" es aumentado en un Escuadrón (29 de Marzo).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Finalmente se empezaron a acuartelar, pero no a movilizar, las unidades de la Guardia Nacional.</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal"><b>2.- Después de declarada la guerra, mes a mes:<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Abril:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0cm;" start="1" type="a"><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Se acepta el ofrecimiento de la municipalidad de Valparaíso, en cuanto a movilizar a la Policía del puerto como un batallón, sin costo para el fisco, siendo designado con el nombre de "Valparaíso", puesto bajo el mando del Teniente Coronel Jacinto Niño (6 de Abril).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Se acepta el ofrecimiento de la municipalidad de Santiago, en cuanto a movilizar a la Policía de la ciudad como un batallón, sin costo para el fisco, siendo designado con el nombre de "Bulnes" (9 de Abril).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Se moviliza a la brigada cívica de Recoleta (22 de Abril), un poco más tarde es transformado en Batallón y recibe el nombre de "Chacabuco", siendo puesto bajo el mando del Teniente Coronel Domingo Toro (26 de Abril).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">La brigada de Artillería de Antofagasta es transformada en un Batallón de Artillería (24 de Abril)</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Se moviliza en Valparaíso el batallón Cívico "Naval" bajo el mando del Teniente Coronel Urriola (29 de Abril).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Es movilizado el Batallón Cívico "Legión Extranjera" (29 de Abril).</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Mayo:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0cm;" start="1" type="a"><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Es movilizado en Valparaíso el Batallón Cívico "Lautaro".</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Es movilizado el Escuadrón de Caballería "Carabineros de Yungay", usando como base el III Escuadrón del Regimiento "Cazadores", creado como recordaremos el 29 de Marzo y es puesto bajo el mando del Teniente Coronel Manuel Bulnes, hijo del General Bulnes y sobrino del Presidente de la República (8 de Mayo).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Es movilizado el Regimiento de Infantería Cívico "Valdivia" y puesto bajo el mando del Teniente Coronel Egidio Gómez.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">El batallón "Legión Extranjera" es rebautizado como "Cazadores del Desierto", estando bajo el mando del Teniente Coronel Bouquet(14 de Mayo).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Es movilizado en Santiago el Batallón Cívico "Carampangue" (31 de Mayo).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Se racionaliza el acuartelamiento de las unidades de la Guardia Nacional, quedando sólo las acuarteladas las siguientes unidades aún sin orden de movilización; Batallón Cívico de Atacama, un Batallón del Regimiento de Artillería Cívico "Andes" de Valparaíso, las Brigadas Cívicas de Coquimbo y Caldera.</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Junio:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0cm;" start="1" type="a"><li class="MsoNormal" style="">El batallón "Lautaro" es transformado en Regimiento", siendo puesto bajo el mando del Coronel Mauricio Muñoz. (5 de Junio).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Es creada en Antofagasta una compañía de "Pontoneros" (6 de Junio)</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">El batallón "Carampangue" es transformado en Regimiento y rebautizado como "Esmeralda" y puesto bajo el mando del Coronel Santiago Amengual (9 de Junio).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Es movilizado en Copiapó el Batallón Cívico "Atacama", y puesto bajo el mando del Teniente Coronel Juan Martínez (30 de Junio).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Es movilizado en Coquimbo el Batallón Cívico "Coquimbo" N°1 (30 de Junio).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Es movilizado en Chillán el Batallón Cívico "Chillán" (30 de Junio).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Es creado el Ejército del Centro o de Reservas, bajo el mando del Coronel Cornelio Saavedra, las unidades que lo componen son; los regimientos "Valdivia", "Lautaro" y "Esmeralda", así como el batallón "Cazadores del Desierto", el regimiento de artillería y el Escuadrón "Carabineros de Yungay" (26 de Junio).</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Julio:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Al parecer debido al rápido crecimiento de las fuerzas, durante este mes no se crearon nuevas unidades.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">El Escuadrón "Carabineros de Yungay" N°1 del comandante Bulnes es capturado completo por el monitor "Huascar", mientras era transportado hacía Antofagasta a bordo del transporte "Rimac"(27 de Julio).</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Agosto</i></b>:</p> <ol style="margin-top: 0cm;" start="1" type="a"><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Se ordena movilizar el Escuadrón de Caballería "Carabineros de Yungay" N°2, bajo el mando del Teniente Coronel Emeterio Letelier, sobre la base de 14 Granaderos (2 Alféreces, 4 Sargentos 2°, 4 Cabos 1° y 4 Cabos 2°) (4 de Agosto).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Se establece el mando del Ejército de la Frontera, siendo designado como su comandante el General de División Urrutía.</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">El Batallón de Artillería de Antofagasta es transformado en el Regimiento de Artillería N°2 (29 de Agosto).</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Septiembre:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0cm;" start="1" type="a"><li class="MsoNormal" style="">La Compañía de Pontoneros es transformada en el "Cuerpo de Ingenieros" y puesto bajo el mando del Teniente Coronel Arístides Martínez (3 de Septiembre).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Es disuelto el Regimiento "Valdivia", su personal es enviado al norte a fin de completar el personal de los cuerpos ahí acantonados(13 de Septiembre).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Con personal del disuelto Regimiento "Valdivia" que no tuvo colocación en el Ejército del Norte, es creado en Santiago el Batallón Cívico "Valdivia", y puesto bajo el mando del 2° Comandante del disuelto Regimiento, Teniente Coronel Lucio Martínez (13 de Septiembre).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Debido al envío de el último gran convoy al Norte, es disuelto el mando del Ejército del Centro (22 de Septiembre).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Con el resto del personal sobrante del disuelto Regimiento "Valdivia", se crea en Santiago el Batallón "Caupolican" y puesto bajo elmando del Teniente Coronel Felix Valdés (29 de Septiembre).</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Octubre:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Al parecer durante este mes debido a la inminencia de la salida a campaña del Ejército del Norte no se crearon nuevas unidades.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">El ejército de Reserva pasa al mando del General de Brigada Villagrán.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Es nombrado Comandante General de la Infantería el Coronel Luis Arteaga</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Noviembre:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0cm;" start="1" type="a"><li class="MsoNormal" style="">A fin de suplir las bajas que se produjeran en el Ejército del Norte, se creó en Santiago el "Deposito de Reclutas" (6 de Noviembre)</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Es movilizado en Colchagua el Batallón Cívico "Colchagua" (15 de Noviembre)</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Es creado el Escuadrón "Carabineros de Maipú" (18 de Noviembre)</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Es movilizado en San Felipe el Batallón Cívico "Aconcagua" (22 de Noviembre).</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Diciembre:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal">No se tiene noticias de movilización de unidades.</p> <p class="MsoNormal">Pero el Ejército del Norte es reorganizado, siendole subordinas 4 divisiones.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b>3.- 1880:<o:p></o:p></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Enero:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0cm;" start="1" type="a"><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Es creado en Copiapó el batallón Cívico "Atacama" N°2</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Es creado en San Felipe el batallón Cívico "Aconcagua" N°2</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Febrero:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Parece ser que en este periodo no fueron movilizadas más tropas a causa de que se abrió la campaña de Tacna.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Marzo:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0cm;" start="1" type="a"><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Es creado en Talca el batallón Cívico "Talca" (6 de Marzo)</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Es creado en Rengo el batallón Cívico "Rengo" (6 de Marzo)</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Es creado en Curicó el batallón Cívico "Curicó" (6 de Marzo)</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Abril:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Mayo:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Junio:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Julio:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <ol style="margin-top: 0cm;" start="1" type="a"><li class="MsoNormal" style="">Se aumenta la dotación a los batallones Atacama N°1, N°2, Coquimbo N°1, Valdivia, Caupolican, Chillán, Melipilla, Aconcagua N°1, N°2, Colchagua, Talca, Rengo, Curicó, Concepción, Cazadores del Desierto y Chacabuco (21 de Julio).</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="">El batallón Cívico "Chillán", es</li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Agosto:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Septiembre:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Octubre:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Noviembre:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><i>Diciembre:<o:p></o:p></i></b></p>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-11156465132171025812009-05-12T15:21:00.002+08:002014-05-01T11:13:08.379+08:00ROBERTO SOUPER<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtOmn-3J1A5d9DwBBSH8VRPbDSI2_sCQKTqP0RecEtzqhEkmFISJCX4ykYZVe-eajGiWnSleuNNZFujtqVJZyzisq-zUX2YH9MUTc7fF3hFHjMfzfmJIHJMZ6rSZskVAf9XWTihyphenhyphencRJJZE/s1600-h/453px-Roberto_Souper.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 242px; height: 320px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtOmn-3J1A5d9DwBBSH8VRPbDSI2_sCQKTqP0RecEtzqhEkmFISJCX4ykYZVe-eajGiWnSleuNNZFujtqVJZyzisq-zUX2YH9MUTc7fF3hFHjMfzfmJIHJMZ6rSZskVAf9XWTihyphenhyphencRJJZE/s320/453px-Roberto_Souper.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5334834236508506594" border="0" /></a><br /><div style="text-align: center;">ROBERTO SOUPER<br />1818-1881<br />Ingles por nacimiento, chileno por el amor<br />Murió como héroe al defender el honor de Chile<br /></div><br /><br />Colonel Robert Souper Howard (September 9, 1818 - January 13, 1881) was an English soldier who served in the Chilean Army during most of the War of the Pacific.<br /><br />Born in Harwich, England, son of Colonel William Souper and Emily Howard. His father, concerned about the education of his sons and looking for a better future for the family, decided to leave England and seek better fortune in France. They established themselves in Calais.<br /><br />During the War of the Pacific, he joined the Chilean Army a few days before the official declaration of war, on April 3, 1879 as a Captain. He was then selected by Minister Rafael Sotomayor, and was present in the Naval Battle of Angamos.<br /><br />He became a member of the Army General Staff, and participated in the Battle of Pisagua (November 2, 1879) and the Battle of Dolores (November 19, 1879); helping capture the Peruvian province of Tarapaca, which was effectively separated from the rest of the country.<br /><br />During the Chilean offensive against Tarapaca, he served under General Manuel Baquedano as his Aide de Camp. Under his command, he fought on the Battle of Los Angeles, the Battle of Alto de la Alianza and the assault of Arica<br /><br />He was killed during the aftermath of the Battle of San Juan.Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-83881362855009338172009-05-12T15:10:00.003+08:002016-08-23T15:52:56.257+08:00Battle of San Francisco<table class="normal roottable"><tbody>
<tr><th align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Battle of San Francisco</th> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Part of War of the Pacific</td> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left" colspan="2" valign="top"><table class="normal"> <tbody>
<tr> <th align="left" valign="top">Date</th> <td align="left" valign="top">November 19, 1879</td> </tr>
<tr> <th align="left" valign="top">Location</th> <td align="left" valign="top">South America</td> </tr>
<tr> <th align="left" valign="top">Result</th> <td align="left" valign="top"><i>Chilean victory</i></td> </tr>
</tbody></table>
</td> </tr>
<tr> <th align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Belligerents</th> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left" valign="top"> Chile</td> <td align="left" valign="top"> Peru<br />
Bolivia</td> </tr>
<tr> <th align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Commanders</th> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left" valign="top"> Col. Emilio Sotomayor</td> <td align="left" valign="top"> Gen. Juan Buendia</td> </tr>
<tr> <th align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Strength</th> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left" valign="top">6,500 soldiers:<br />
3 regiments<br />
4 battalions<br />
2 artillery batteries</td> <td align="left" valign="top">7,400 soldiers:<br />
17 battalions<br />
1 artillery battery<br />
2 cavalry squadrons</td> </tr>
<tr> <th align="left" colspan="2" valign="top">Casualties and losses</th> </tr>
<tr> <td align="left" valign="top">60 killed<br />
148 wounded</td> <td align="left" valign="top">220 killed<br />
76 wounded<br />
3,200 missing<br />
18 smoothbore</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<br />
The Battle of San Francisco, also known as Battle of Dolores, fought on November 19, 1879, was the third battle of the Tarapaca Campaign in the War of the Pacific, after Pisagua and Germania. A Chilean army commanded by Colonel Emilio Sotomayor successfully held off and dispersed the bulk of the Peruvian army led by General Juan Buendía at San Francisco hill, near the town of Dolores. The Allies lost a huge amount of war material such as cannons, ammunition and weapons. The catastrophe for the Allies was the result of poor logistics, inefficient leadership and the unexpected desertion of the Bolivian Army under the half-hearted command of President Hilarion Daza, known as the Camarones betrayal.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Prelude</span><br />
<br />
The Chilean forces had disembarked at the port of Pisagua after launching an amphibious operation on November 2nd, separating and isolating the Allied strongholds of Arica and Iquique; encountering merely mild resistance. On the 6th, Chilean cavalry led by Lt. Col. Jose Francisco Vergara almost annihilated the Peruvian Husares de Junin Cavalry Regiment at Pampa Germania [1] . The Chilean Army had taken extreme care in securing water sources - very rare in the dry Atacama Desert - and in adopting high and easily defendable positions. Meanwhile, the Peruvian army under the command of the old yet incompetent General Juan Buendia marched in an attempt to intercept the Chilean forces. It was Buendia's hope that his Bolivian allies commanded by President Hilarion Daza would link up with his forces in order to numerically overwhelm the fortified Chileans on the San Francisco hill top. However, the route from the Bolivian highlands to San Francisco was long and perilous; furthermore, the Bolivians stubbornly marched in full daylight, thus having to endure the scorching heat of the desert sun. Naturally, when the Bolivians reached the creek of Camarones near San Francisco, they were in no condition to fight a battle. Buendia was forced to face the Chileans on his own.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Preliminary situation</span><br />
<br />
Chilean preliminary situation<br />
<br />
On November 7, the "Buin" 1st Line and the 4th Line regiments with the Atacama and Coquimbo battalions, plus an artillery battery marched from Hospicio to Dolores. The next day took the same route the 3rd Line Regiment, the Navales and Valparaíso battalions and another artillery battery. These two columns reunited at Dolores on November 10th. The Chilean forces, under the command of Colonel Emilio Sotomayor, had a strength of 6,500 men [1] .<br />
<br />
<br />
Peruvian preliminary situation<br />
<br />
On November 5th, the Allies marched to Pozo Almonte, increasing its numbers with stray soldiers. On the 13th, Buendia left Pozo Almonte and moved towards Agua Santa, reaching his destination four days later. During the march, the soldiers were haunted by the lack of food and water. The troops marched to Negritos, and thence to Dolores. On the night of the 18th, Gen. Buendia decide to advance to Dolores and engage the Chilean troops posted there [2]<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Armies layout</span><br />
<br />
Chilean battle plan and disposition<br />
<br />
When a scout group of the Cazadores a Caballo Cavalry Regiment encountered the marching Allied forces, Colonel Sotomayor - after a bitter discussion with Lt. Col. José Fco. Vergara - decided to fortify the position on the top of the San Francisco hill, where the larger number of the Allies represented no advantage whatsoever. Also, the artillery was divided in groups guarded with infantry [3]<br />
<br />
The Chilean forces were divided into three groups and deployed as it follows:<br />
<br />
On the northern elevation or Dolores hill, were the "Buin" 1st Line Regiment and the Valparaíso and Navales battalions; a six cannon battery directed by Cptn. Roberto Wood and another six mountain cannons led by Cptn. Eulogio Villareal [4] .<br />
<br />
On the southern edge of the San Francisco hill was set the 4th Line Regiment with the Atacama and Coquimbo battalions; an eight cannon battery commanded by Sgt. Major Jose Maria de la Cruz Salvo, another six piece battery and 2 Gatling machine guns of Sgt. Major Benjamin Montoya, this last one set on the south-eastern part of this hill [4] .<br />
<br />
On the hills San Bartolo and Tres Clavos was deployed the 3rd Line Regiment, along with a detachment of 50 soldiers from different units, besides some riders of the Cazadores a Caballo Cavalry Regiment; and two batteries of four cannons each [4] .<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Peruvian battle plan and disposition</span><br />
<br />
General Buendia divided his 7,400 troops in three columns. In this plan, Buendia counted on Hilarion Daza's Bolivian troops, but the latter decided to return to Arica after a long and extenuating march.<br />
<br />
The three columns were placed under the command of Belisario Suarez, Andres Caceres and Buendia himself. The Suarez' column was formed by the Villamil, Bolognesi and Velarde divisions. This units were composed by the Cazadores de Cuzco Nº5, Cazadores de la Guardia Nº7, Ayacucho, Guardia de Arequipa, Aroma, Vengadores, Victoria and Colquechaca battalions.<br />
<br />
Buendia had under his command the Villegas, Bustamante and Davila divisions, formed by the Ayacucho Nº3, Provisional de Lima Nº3, Cerro de Pasco, Puno Nº6, Lima Nº8, Illimani, Olañeta, Paucarpata, Dalance battalions, besides two cavalry squadrons and a six cannon battery.<br />
<br />
Finally, the third column of Caceres was placed on the rear as reserve [5] .<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">The battle</span><br />
<br />
A few Bolivian soldiers went to the San Francisco dwell looking for water, accidentally firing a gunshot, situation answered with one cannon shot by the Chilean artillery, thinking an imminent attack. These actions began the battle. Despite the Allied officers efforts to contain their men, the Peruvian and Bolivian forces attacked the Chilean positions in disorder.<br />
<br />
Bolivian Gen. Carlos Villegas, with two companies of Puno and Ayacucho battalions, alongside with another two companies of the Illimani and Olañeta battalions started to fire at the Chilean positions causing no damage at all because of the long distance separating them and their enemies. Col. Lavadenz himself with the first company of the Dalance Battalion shortened the distance between them and the Chilean batteries of Amunategui's group, getting close to forty paces away from its objective. Gen Villegas then ordered another Dalance Battalion company to enter into the battle, along with the Lima Nº 8 and Puno battalions [5] .<br />
<br />
Whilst these actions occurred on the Chilean left flank, Gen. Buendia's column headed to Dolores hill, describing a semicircle trying to take the Chilean position at Tres Clavos. Meanwhile this manoeuvre was being executed, the Chilean batteries of Frias and Carvallo caught Buendia in a heavy cross fire, breaking the Allies formation for a moment. Nevertheless, the Peruvian troops reorganized and continued advancing towards its objective, despite the severe loss of men. When the Allied troops got closer, the Chilean infantry posted here - six companies of the 3rd Line Regiment - stopped the attacking forces and obliged them to retreat out of Chilean batteries range [5] .<br />
<br />
Villegas, having a part of his troops engaged in battle with Amunategui, advanced with the rest of his soldiers reinforcing Lavadenz and Espinar, and charged against Salvo's battery, defended only by its 56 cannon servants. Salvo spread his troops defending their positions with their rifles, as his soldiers spiked their cannons in an attempt to keep them from falling into Allied hands, waiting for reinforcements.<br />
<br />
Two companies of the Atacama Battalion came in Salvo's aid, forcing the enemy to retreat. The Allies were rebuilt at hill bottom by another company of the Dalance Bn. and charged again. But this time, another Chilean company of the Coquimbo Battalion reached this position and with the remaining troops counterattacked this second effort on the hill slope. One last attack took place, but it was rejected once again with a bayonet charge [3] . This time the Allies withdrew definitively.<br />
<br />
The Chilean troops didn't chase the Allies in their retreat, staying in their positions at the top of the hill, thinking the Allies would regroup and attack again the next day.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-weight: bold;">Aftermath</span><br />
<br />
The Chileans lost 208 men between dead and wounded. The Allies had 296 casualties, plus over 3.000 missing troops. This defeat was a very rough blow for the Peruvian Army Southern Command. The remaining troops marched to Tarapacá.<br />
<br />
<br />
6. Notes<br />
<br />
1. Mellafe, Rafael; Pelayo, Mauricio (2004). La Guerra del Pacífico en imágenes, relatos, testimonios. Centro de Estudios Bicentenario.<br />
2. Basadre, Jorge. "La verdadera epopeya". http://www.unjbg.edu.pe. Retrieved on 2008.<br />
3. Ojeda Frex, Jorge. "Batalla de Dolores". http://www.geocities.com/blautz_9000/articulos/Dolores.htm. Retrieved on 2008.<br />
4. Reyno Gutiérrez, Manuel; Gómez Ehrmann, Sergio; Guerrero Yoacham, Cristián (1985). Historia del Ejército de Chile, tomo V. Estado Mayor General del Ejército de Chile.<br />
5. Machuca, Francisco (1926). Las cuatro campañas de la Guerra del Pacífico, Vol. I. Imprenta Victoria, Valparaíso.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
7. References<br />
<br />
* Machuca, Francisco (1926). Las cuatro campañas de la Guerra del Pacífico. Imprenta Victoria, Valparaíso.<br />
<br />
* Reyno Gutiérrez, MMitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-32226260021120463182009-05-12T15:06:00.002+08:002014-05-01T11:13:08.423+08:00Andrés Avelino Caceres<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGoEpIk_tEVKAWQotg1b1PRq-Q8DNETvERi9AHbLA6Hzqg_xpTPF62HRY3rCnsOCj_16t4gS2pXMsN87C0s7XSXZtc0AEpAdBEL15PgDquRj5odYe9mIh_Q4AZgnZggl9dIFKa41cp_fMz/s1600-h/Andr%C3%A9s_Avelino_C%C3%A1ceres.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 178px; height: 279px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjGoEpIk_tEVKAWQotg1b1PRq-Q8DNETvERi9AHbLA6Hzqg_xpTPF62HRY3rCnsOCj_16t4gS2pXMsN87C0s7XSXZtc0AEpAdBEL15PgDquRj5odYe9mIh_Q4AZgnZggl9dIFKa41cp_fMz/s320/Andr%C3%A9s_Avelino_C%C3%A1ceres.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5334830560065255394" border="0" /></a><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="color:#800000;"><i>CACERES, Andrés Avelino, </i> </span></b>Peruvian soldier, born in Huanta, 12 April, 1831. He was a law student at the University of Lima in 1852, when Castilla headed a revolt to abolish slavery in Perú, and joined the revolutionary troops as a second lieutenant. He distinguished himself in the attack upon Arequipa, a place very well fortified, and defended by Vivanco, and General Castilla promoted him to the rank of captain and appointed him military attaché to the Peruvian legation at Paris, where he remained from 1857 till 1860. </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">On his return to Perú in the latter year he defended the government of Perú in several revolutions, and accompanied Prado at Callao during the attack against that place by the Spanish fleet in 1866. Then Cáceres won the rank of colonel, and was given command of the Zepita regiment, at the head of which he fought against Pierola from 1876 till 1878. During the war with Chile he was prominent, especially at the battle of Dolores, 2 November, 1879, when he successfully resisted the Chilean troops and captured some of their guns. </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">At the battle of Tacna, won by the Chileans, 26 May, 1880, he commanded a brigade and fought well, after which he offered his services to the dictator Pierola, who gave him command of a division camped near Lima, which was attacked and defeated by the Chileans, 14 January, 1881. </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">When the Chilean army occupied Lima, Cáceres and Pierola retreated with the rest of their forces to Arequipa, the former being appointed brigadier-general, and authorized by congress to continue the hostilities against the Chileans as well as against the Peruvian General Iglesias, who had established a government of his own at Cajamarca. </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">He made several unsuccessful attacks upon the Chilean troops, and, after much suffering in a three months' march through the Sierras, could not carry out the orders of congress to destroy Iglesias' government, for he was defeated by a Chilean division under Gorostiaga near Huamacucho, 14 November, 1881. Cáceres then went to the interior, raised a revolution against Iglesias, put himself at the head of a considerable force, and was again defeated near Lima. </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal">But he persistently worked to depose Iglesias, collected more troops, routed those of the government, and finally entered the capital in March, 1885, and at once directed the election of a special board to govern until a new congress and president were chosen. He was elected president on 3 December, 1885, and his inauguration took place on 28 July, 1886.</p>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4530315205876842072.post-34440580484014665522009-05-06T09:36:00.002+08:002014-05-01T11:13:08.426+08:00Andean Tragedy: Fighting the War of the Pacific, 1879-1884<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1TLaxUjfMlEGKdNpQc0p14vndtnswQ0M9hvXwu6jFIx5A7Aoue_q9yp2U46ryhZKUlMvHhL35CsXD-4NeOS5NjKUdOWTqWySQ9e3A9ucfmhNkZw4xSKMZyXdT1IFBNVPfmuwJb0Pmc4sQ/s1600-h/51QMXclvJOL._SS500_.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 320px; height: 320px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1TLaxUjfMlEGKdNpQc0p14vndtnswQ0M9hvXwu6jFIx5A7Aoue_q9yp2U46ryhZKUlMvHhL35CsXD-4NeOS5NjKUdOWTqWySQ9e3A9ucfmhNkZw4xSKMZyXdT1IFBNVPfmuwJb0Pmc4sQ/s320/51QMXclvJOL._SS500_.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5332519424046097826" border="0" /></a><b>Review</b><br />"A well-researched and serious study that both scholars and casual readers will learn from."-Thomas L. Whigham, Hispanic American Historical Review (Thomas L. Whigham <i>Hispanic American Historical Review</i> 20081001)<br /><br />"A fine example of the new vision of battle history as the author discusses arms, strategies, and tactics, as well as descriptions of encounters and the conduct of soldiers. . . . This is a well-written, well-researched work on a crucial event in the history of the west coast of South America and highly recommended to those interested in this region as well as to military history buffs."-Jerry W. Cooney, The Americas (Jerry W. Cooney <i>The Americas</i> ) <br /><br /> <b>Product Description</b><br /> The year 1879 marked the beginning of one of the longest, bloodiest conflicts of nineteenth-century Latin America. The War of the Pacific pitted Peru and Bolivia against Chile in a struggle initiated over a festering border dispute. The conflict saw Chile’s and Peru’s armored warships vying for control of sea lanes and included one of the first examples of the use of naval torpedoes. On land, large armies using the most modern weapons—breech-loading rifles, Gatling guns, and steel-barreled artillery—clashed in battles that left thousands of men dead on the battlefields. Eventually, the warring parties revamped their respective military establishments, creating much needed, civilian-supported supply, transportation, and medical units. Chile ultimately prevailed. Bolivia lost its seacoast along with valuable nitrate and copper deposits to Chile, and Peru was forced to cede mineral rich Tarapaca and the province of Arica to the victor. <div>Employing the primary and secondary sources of the countries involved, William F. Sater offers the definitive analysis of the conflict's naval and military campaigns. <i>Andean Tragedy</i> not only places the war in a crucial international context, but also explains why this devastating conflict resulted in a Chilean victory.<br /><br />#<br /><br />There is no question that Professor Sater is the foremost authority on the War of the Pacific in the English language and probably in any language. For many years now, he has meticulously and profoundly researched into archives, published works, memoirs, folkloric sources, songs and poetry without leaving a stone unturned. This is his third book and presumably the final work on the subject: the culmination of decades work and study of his favorite subject. His facts are unquestionable even though some of his description of the battles may, at times, conflict with eyewitness narratives or popular sources. His description of the shortcomings in logistics and sanitary services go deeper than any other description of the war. Neither does the author shy away from the horrors of war which many Chilean and Peruvian historians tend to minimize.<br /><br />Having recognized his effort in the investigations and his fine ability to put the facts together in good and easily understood order, there are plenty of opportunities to disagree with some of his conclusions. Many Chilean historians will find fault with his harsh judgment of Admiral Williams and Captain Simpson, and it must be admitted that he carries them a bit too far. Taking sides with Chilean Historian Francisco Encina, the author treats General Baquedano with equal ferocity. He believes that the General caused unnecessary loss of life at Tacna and later at Chorillos. He accepts the fact that battles of the XIX Century were unusually bloody. Frontal attacks, even if done in echelons, were brutal such as Picket's charge at Gettysburg and Pancho Villa's Army at Zelaya. In reference to Gettysburg there is a striking similarity with movements at Tacna, of course in a much more limited scale, but Baquedano's wise use of his reserves, unlike Lee, gave the attackers the victory. The alternative plan at Chorrillos or San Juan was too complicated, it extended the lines of march, it deprived the army from naval fire support and it did not pursue the ultimate goal of an army: to destroy the opposing force.<br /><br />In summary, an excellent book: well researched and well organized that constitutes the best one volume account of this tragic war.<br /><br /><h1><span style="font-size:100%;"><span><b><b>Carlos U. Lopez</b></b></span></span></h1><br /></div>Mitch Williamsonhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14692138354674511017noreply@blogger.com0